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SarahJayneBlakemore_2012G-_少年大脑的神奇运作方式_
Fifteen years ago, it was widely assumed that the vast majority of brain development takes place in the first few years of life. 15年前,大多数人认为 是在生命开始的头几年进行的
assumed:adj.假定的;假设的;v.假定;假设;认为;承担;(assume的过去分词和过去式) majority:n.大部分:大多数:多数票:成年人:
Back then, 15 years ago, we didn't have the ability to look inside the living human brain and track development across the lifespan . 在过去,15年前,我们还做不到
track:n.小道;足迹;车辙;轨道;v.追踪;跟踪; lifespan:n.寿命;预期生命期限;预期使用期限;
In the past decade or so, mainly due to advances in brain imaging technology such as magnetic resonance imaging, or MRI, neuroscientists have started to look inside the living human brain of all ages, and to track changes in brain structure and brain function, 神经科学家已经开始了探究不同年龄 的人脑内部情况,并记录下大脑结构和功能 的不同变化,
mainly:adv.大多;大部分;主要地;首要地; imaging:n.[物]成像;造像;v.反映;想像;作…的像;象征;(image的现在分词形式) technology:n.技术;工艺;术语; magnetic:adj.像磁铁的;有磁性的;磁的;富有吸引力的; resonance:n.[力]共振;共鸣;反响; neuroscientists:n.神经系统科学家; structure:n.结构;构造;建筑物;vt.组织;构成;建造;
so we use structural MRI if you'd like to take a snapshot , a photograph, at really high resolution of the inside of the living human brain, and we can ask questions like, how much gray matter does the brain contain, and how does that change with age? 这样我们就可以提出一些问题了,例如 会随着年龄变化而变化吗？
structural:adj.结构的;建筑的; snapshot:n.快照,快相;急射,速射;简单印象;vt.给…拍快照;vi.拍快照; resolution:n.解决;分辨;解析;决议;
And we also use functional MRI, called fMRI, to take a video, a movie, of brain activity when participants are taking part in some kind of task like thinking or feeling or perceiving something. 进行某项活动中,比如思考或感受某些东西时 记录拍摄下大脑的活动情况。
functional:adj.功能的; participants:n.参与者(participant的复数形式); perceiving:v.注意到;意识到;将…理解为;认为;(perceive的现在分词)
So many labs around the world are involved in this kind of research, and we now have a really rich and detailed picture of how the living human brain develops, and this picture has radically changed the way we think about human brain development 现在世界上很多实验室都参与了这项研究 所以我们就得出了很丰富 同时这张照片从根本上颠覆了 我们以往对人脑发育的观念
labs:n.实验室;实验大楼;(lab的复数) involved:adj.有关的; v.涉及; (involve的过去式和过去分词) radically:adv.根本上;彻底地;以激进的方式;
by revealing that it's not all over in early childhood , and instead, the brain continues to develop right throughout adolescence and into the '20s and '30s. 相反,大脑会继续发育 贯穿整个青春期,一直到20多岁甚至30多岁
revealing:adj.暴露的;发人深省的;v.揭示;露出;显示;展示;(reveal的现在分词) childhood:n.童年;幼年;孩童时期 throughout:adv.自始至终,到处;全部;prep.贯穿,遍及; adolescence:n.青春期;
So adolescence is defined as the period of life that starts with the biological , hormonal , physical changes of puberty and ends at the age at which an individual attains a stable , independent role in society. 所以青春期也被定义为 生命中生理和荷尔蒙转变的开端 也就标志这青春期的结束了。
defined:adj.有定义的,确定的; v.使明确; biological:adj.生物学的;生物的;与生命过程有关的;加酶的;n.[药]生物制品; hormonal:adj.荷尔蒙的,激素的; physical:adj.[物]物理的;身体的;物质的;符合自然法则的;n.体格检查; puberty:n.青春期;开花期; individual:n.个人;有个性的人;adj.单独的;个别的; attains:vt.达到,实现;获得;到达;vi.达到;获得;到达;n.成就; stable:n.马厩;牛棚;adj.稳定的;牢固的;坚定的;vi.被关在马厩;赶入马房; independent:adj.独立的; n.无党派议员(或候选人等);
(Laughter) （笑声）
It can go on a long time. (Laughter)
One of the brain regions that changes most dramatically during adolescence is called prefrontal cortex . 它在青春期阶段是最活跃的。
regions:n.地区;地域;行政区;左近;(region的复数) dramatically:adv.戏剧地;引人注目地;adv.显著地,剧烈地; prefrontal:adj.[解剖]前额的;额叶前部的;n.[解剖]额前骨; cortex:n.[解剖]皮质;树皮;果皮;
So this is a model of the human brain, and this is prefrontal cortex, right at the front.
Prefrontal cortex is an interesting brain area.
It's proportionally much bigger in humans than in any other species , and it's involved in a whole range of high level cognitive functions, things like decision-making ,
proportionally:adv.成比例地;相称地,适当地; species:n.[生物]物种;种类; cognitive:adj.认知的,认识的; decision-making:n.决策;
planning, planning what you're going to do tomorrow or next week or next year, inhibiting inappropriate behavior, so stopping yourself saying something really rude or doing something really stupid. 计划,计划明天要做的事情
inhibiting:adj.抑制作用的;约束的;v.抑制;约束(inhibit的ing形式); inappropriate:adj.不适当的;不相称的;
It's also involved in social interaction , understanding other people, and self-awareness .
interaction:n.[计]交互,相互作用;相互交流;干扰; self-awareness:n.自我意识;
So MRI studies looking at the development of this region have shown that it really undergoes dramatic development during the period of adolescence.
undergoes:vt.经历,经受;忍受;
So if you look at gray matter volume , for example, gray matter volume across age from age four to 22 years increases during childhood, which is what you can see on this graph. It peaks in early adolescence. 从4岁起到22岁的大脑灰质 会在童年时期会增加,也就是现在在图表上你能看到的 在早期的青春期会到达顶峰
volume:n.体积;容积;音量;响度;一册;合订本
The arrows indicate peak gray matter volume in prefrontal cortex. You can see that that peak happens a couple of years later in boys relative to girls, 箭头指的就是大脑灰质在前额叶皮层 男孩会相对比女孩要慢几年
indicate:v.表明;显示;象征;暗示; relative:adj.相对的;有关系的;成比例的;n.亲戚;相关物;[语]关系词;亲缘植物;
and that's probably because boys go through puberty a couple of years later than girls on average, and then during adolescence, there's a significant decline in gray matter volume in prefrontal cortex. 在前额叶皮层会出现一个明显的下降
significant:adj.重大的;有效的;有意义的;值得注意的;意味深长的;n.象征;有意义的事物; decline:v.下降;衰退;减少;谢绝;n.下降;
Now that might sound bad, but actually this is a really important developmental process , because gray matter contains cell bodies and connections between cells, the synapses , and this decline in gray matter volume during prefrontal cortex is thought to correspond to synaptic pruning , the elimination of unwanted synapses. 但这确实一个极其重要的发育阶段 还有细胞之间的联系,也就是突触
developmental:adj.发展的;启发的; process:v.处理;加工;列队行进;n.过程,进行;方法,adj.经过特殊加工(或处理)的; synapses:n.(神经元的)突触(synapse的复数;synapsis的复数) correspond:vi.符合,一致;相应;通信; synaptic:adj.突触的;(染色体)联合的; pruning:v.修剪树枝;裁减;削减;精简;(prune的现在分词) elimination:n.消除;淘汰;除去; unwanted:adj.不需要的;有害的;讨厌的;空闲的;
This is a really important process. It's partly dependent on the environment that the animal or the human is in, and the synapses that are being used are strengthened, and synapses that aren't being used in that particular environment are pruned away. 而在那个特定的环境里 那些没什么存在必要的突触则会被剔除掉
dependent on:依赖于;依靠; pruned:v.修剪树枝;打杈;裁减;削减;精简;(prune的过去分词和过去式)
You can think of it a bit like pruning a rosebush . 你可以把它当成是修剪盆栽
rosebush:n.蔷薇丛;玫瑰丛;灌木;
You prune away the weaker branches so that the remaining, important branches, can grow stronger, and this process, which effectively fine-tunes brain tissue according to the species-specific environment, 把那些奄奄一息的枯枝败叶修剪掉 这样那些剩下的,重要的枝干,就会茁壮成长 这个会根据物种及环境不同 而高效调整大脑组织的过程
fine-tunes:vt.调整;使有规则;对进行微调; tissue:n.纸巾,手巾纸;(人、动植物细胞的)组织; according to:根据,据说;
is happening in prefrontal cortex and in other brain regions during the period of human adolescence.
So a second line of inquiry that we use to track changes in the adolescent brain is using functional MRI to look at changes in brain activity across age. 的第二轮调查,就是用功能磁共振成像 来探究不同年龄大脑活动的变化情况
inquiry:n.询问;查询;打听;调查; adolescent:adj.青春期的;未成熟的;n.青少年;
So I'll just give you an example from my lab. 这里我举个发生在我实验室里的例子。
So in my lab, we're interested in the social brain, that is the network of brain regions that we use to understand other people and to interact with other people. 的大脑区域网络。
So I like to show a photograph of a soccer game to illustrate two aspects of how your social brains work.
illustrate:v.解释;加插图于;给(书等)做图表;表明…真实; aspects:n.方面;相位;面貌(aspect的复数);
So this is a soccer game. (Laughter)
Michael Owen has just missed a goal, and he's lying on the ground, and the first aspect of the social brain that this picture really nicely illustrates is how automatic and instinctive social emotional responses are, 所以他躺在地上,这张图片诠释了 这是社会脑的第一个层面,
nicely:adv.细致地;有吸引力;令人满意;令人愉快;adj.强健的; illustrates:v.阐明;举例说明(illustrate的三单形式);给…加插图; automatic:adj.自动的;无意识的;必然的;n.自动步枪;自动换挡汽车; instinctive:adj.本能的;直觉的;天生的; emotional:adj.情绪的;易激动的;感动人的; responses:n.回答,答复;反应;响应;(response的复数)
so within a split second of Michael Owen missing this goal, everyone is doing the same thing with their arms and the same thing with their face, even Michael Owen 所以就在欧文没射中球门的那一瞬间, 每个人的手都是同样的动作 同样的表情,甚至欧文也是这样
split second:adj.霎那间发生的,瞬间发生的;
as he slides along the grass, is doing the same thing with his arms, and presumably has a similar facial expression , and the only people who don't are the guys in yellow at the back — (Laughs) — 在他划过草地时,他也是同样的手势 而唯一不为所动的那个人, 就是背后穿黄色球衣的了——（笑声）——
presumably:adv.大概;推测起来;可假定; facial:adj.面部的,表面的;脸的,面部用的;n.美容,美颜;脸部按摩; expression:n.表现,表示,表达;
and I think they're on the wrong end of the stadium , and they're doing another social emotional response that we all instantly recognize , and that's the second aspect 我觉得他们是场上占不到什么优势的人 他们有着不一样的社交情绪反应
stadium:n.[体]露天大型体育场;[病]病期;[生]生长期;龄期; recognize:v.认识;认出;辨别出;承认;意识到;
of the social brain that this picture really nicely illustrates, how good we are at reading other people's behavior, their actions, their gestures , their facial expressions , in terms of their underlying emotions and mental states. 也在图片上很好地表现出来 解读他人的举动,他人的手势,还有他们的面部表情
gestures:n.手势; v.做手势; (gesture的第三人称单数和复数) expressions:表达,表情(expression的复数) underlying:adj.根本的; v.构成…的基础; (underlie的现在分词) emotions:n.强烈的感情;激情;情感;(emotion的复数)
So you don't have to ask any of these guys.
You have a pretty good idea of what they're feeling and thinking at this precise moment in time. 就能对这个时候他们的情感和思想 有一个颇为准确的理解。
precise:adj.准确的;确切的;精确的;明确的;
So that's what we're interested in looking at in my lab. 这就是我的实验室所感兴趣的事。
So in my lab, we bring adolescents and adults into the lab to have a brain scan, we give them some kind of task that involves thinking about other people, their minds, 在实验室里,我们召集了青少年和成年人
adolescents:n.[人类]青少年(adolescent复数); involves:v.包含;需要;牵涉;牵连;影响;(使)参加,加入(involve的第三人称单数)
their mental states, their emotions, and one of the findings that we've found several times now, as have other labs around the world, is part of the prefrontal cortex called 以及对自己的情绪的思考
findings:n.调查发现;判决;裁决;(finding的复数)
medial prefrontal cortex, which is shown in blue on the slide, and it's right in the middle of prefrontal cortex in the midline of your head.
medial:adj.中间的;平均的;普通的;n.[语]中间字母; midline:n.中线;中间线;
This region is more active in adolescents when they make these social decisions and think about other people than it is in adults, and this is actually a meta-analysis 当青少年在做社交决定以及考虑他人时 他们大脑的这个区域
meta-analysis:n.荟萃分析;元分析;
of nine different studies in this area from labs around the world, and they all show the same thing, that activity in this medial prefrontal cortex area decreases during the period of adolescence. 在这个方面的九个不同研究的荟萃分析 他们都表明了一样的结果, 就是内侧前额叶皮质的活跃度,
decreases:减少(decrease的复数);
And we think that might be because adolescents and adults use a different mental approach , a different cognitive strategy , to make social decisions, and one way of looking at that is to do behavioral studies 不同的认知策略,
approach:n.方法;路径;v.接近;建议;着手处理; strategy:n.策略;行动计划;部署;战略; behavioral:adj.行为的;
whereby we bring people into the lab and we give them some kind of behavioral task, and I'll just give you another example of the kind of task that we use in my lab. 我们把人召集进实验室 我给你们举个我们实验室的任务的例子。
whereby:adv.凭借;通过…;借以;与…一致;
So imagine that you're the participant in one of our experiments. You come into the lab, you see this computerized task. 你看到这个电脑程序任务。
computerized:adj.电脑的; v.用电子计算机控制(computerize的过去分词);
In this task, you see a set of shelves. 在这个任务中,你看到几排的架子。
Now, there are objects on these shelves, on some of them, and you'll notice there's a guy standing behind the set of shelves, and there are some objects that he can't see.
They're occluded , from his point of view , with a kind of gray piece of wood.
occluded:v.闭塞的;堵塞;咬合的(occlude的过去分词); point of view:观点;见地;立场;
This is the same set of shelves from his point of view.
Notice that there are only some objects that he can see, whereas there are many more objects that you can see. 但你却能看到更多的。
whereas:conj.然而;鉴于;反之;
Now your task is to move objects around. 你的任务就是去移动这些物品。
The director, standing behind the set of shelves, is going to direct you to move objects around, but remember, he's not going to ask you to move objects
that he can't see. This introduces a really interesting condition whereby there's a kind of conflict between your perspective and the director's perspective. 他看不到的物品。这就引出了一个很有意思的情况 会有一种冲突。
conflict:n.冲突;矛盾;争执;抵触;v.抵触; perspective:n.观点;远景;透视图;adj.透视的;
So imagine he tells you to move the top truck left.
There are three trucks there. You're going to instinctively go for the white truck, because that's the top truck from your perspective, but then you have to remember, "Oh, he can't see that truck, so he must mean me to move the blue truck," which is the top truck from his perspective. Now believe it or not, 去移动白色那辆,因为从你的角度看 “噢,他看不见那辆火车,所以
instinctively:adv.本能地;
normal, healthy, intelligent adults like you make errors about 50 percent of the time on that kind of trial.
intelligent:adj.有才智的;悟性强的;聪明的;有智力的
They move the white truck instead of the blue truck.
So we give this kind of task to adolescents and adults, and we also have a control condition where there's no director and instead we give people a rule. 我们有条件控制 一个是没有引导员,另一个是给他们定规则。
We tell them, okay, we're going to do exactly the same thing but this time there's no director. Instead you've got to ignore objects with the dark gray background. 这次没有引导员。 相反,你得忽略那些灰色格子。
ignore:v.驳回诉讼;忽视;不理睬;
You'll see that this is exactly the same condition, only in the no-director condition they just have to remember to apply this somewhat arbitrary rule, whereas in the director condition, they have to remember to take into account the director's perspective in order to guide their ongoing behavior. 只有规定的要求, 但在有引导员的情况下,他们则需要 考虑引导员的视野角度
apply:v.申请;涂,敷;应用;适用;请求; somewhat:n.几分;某物;adv.有点;多少;几分;稍微; arbitrary:adj.[数]任意的;武断的;专制的; take into account:考虑;重视;体谅; ongoing:n.发展; adj.持续存在的;
Okay, so if I just show you the percentage errors in a large developmental study we did, this is in a study ranging from age seven to adulthood , and what you're going to see is the percentage errors in the adult group in both conditions, so the gray is the director condition, and you see 这个就是在我们较大规模的研究中 得出的犯错比率, 在两种条件下的错误比率, 灰色的就是有引导员的情况,
percentage:n.百分比;百分率;利润的分成;提成; adulthood:n.成年;成人期;
that our intelligent adults are making errors about 50 percent of the time, whereas they make far fewer errors when there's no director present, when they just have to remember that rule of ignoring the gray background. 记住去忽略灰色格子这一规定。
ignoring:v.忽略,忽视;(ignore的现在分词);
Developmentally , these two conditions develop in exactly the same way. Between late childhood and mid-adolescence, there's an improvement , in other words a reduction of errors, in both of these trials, in both of these conditions. 相应地,这两种条件的情况 错误的几率会随年龄增加而减少。
Developmentally:adv.发育地; improvement:n.改进,改善; reduction:n.减少;缩小;降低;减价;折扣;缩图;
But it's when you compare the last two groups, the mid-adolescent group and the adult group where things get really interesting, because there, there is no continued improvement in the no-director condition. 但当你比较最后两组实验时, 中青春期组和成年组 事情会变得有趣很多 因为在没有引导员的情况下,也没有提升的趋势。
compare:v.比较;对比;n.比较;
In other words, everything you need to do in order to remember the rule and apply it seems to be fully developed by mid-adolescence, whereas in contrast , 但是相反地,
contrast:n.对比;对照;反差;明显的差异;v.对比;对照;形成对比;
if you look at the last two gray bars, there's still a significant improvement in the director condition between mid-adolescence and adulthood, and what 如果你去看两条灰色的图柱 在有引导员的条件下,在中青春期和成年组之间
this means is that the ability to take into account someone else's perspective in order to guide ongoing behavior, which is something, by the way , that we do in everyday life all the time, is still developing in mid-to-late adolescence. 这就意味着,从他人角度考虑出发
by the way:顺便说一下;
So if you have a teenage son or a daughter and you sometimes think they have problems taking other people's perspectives , you're right. They do. And this is why. 你有时觉得他们在考虑他人感受时做得不够好 那么你是对的,的确是这样,这就是原因。
perspectives:n.[数]透视,远景,看法;构面;观点展示(perspective的复数形式);
So we sometimes laugh about teenagers. 所以我们有时会讽刺青少年。
They're parodied , sometimes even demonized in the media for their kind of typical teenage behavior. They take risks, they're sometimes moody , they're very self-conscious . 说他们没什么大脑,有时会在媒体上 他们爱冒险,情绪阴晴不定,非常自我。
parodied:n.拙劣的模仿;诙谐的改编诗文;vt.拙劣模仿; demonized:vt.妖魔化;使…成为魔鬼; typical:adj.典型的;特有的;象征性的; moody:adj.喜怒无常的;易怒的;郁郁寡欢的; self-conscious:adj.自觉的;
I have a really nice anecdote from a friend of mine who said that the thing he noticed most about his teenage daughters before and after puberty was their level of embarrassment in front of him. 我从我朋友那儿听到一个很有趣的故事 他说这是他在女儿们 就是在他面前的尴尬程度。
anecdote:n.轶事;奇闻;秘史; embarrassment:n.窘迫,难堪;使人为难的人或事物;拮据;
So, he said, "Before puberty, if my two daughters were messing around in a shop, I'd say, 'Hey, stop messing around and I'll sing your favorite song,' and instantly they'd stop messing around and he'd sing their favorite song. After puberty, that became the threat. 然后她们立即安分守己,听他唱歌 但青春期过后,唱歌成了威胁。
messing:v.使不整洁;弄脏;弄乱;随地便溺;(mess的现在分词)
(Laughter) （笑声）
The very notion of their dad singing in public was enough to make them behave . 足以震慑他们的调皮。
notion:n.观念;信念;理解; behave:v.表现;(机器等)运转;举止端正;(事物)起某种作用;
So people often ask, "Well, is adolescence a kind of recent phenomenon ? “那么,青春期是一种新生的现象吗？
phenomenon:n.现象;杰出的人;非凡的人(或事物);
Is it something we've invented recently in the West?" 是西方国家近几年才发现的吗？”
recently:adv.最近;新近;
And actually, the answer is probably not. There are lots of descriptions of adolescence in history that sound very similar to the descriptions we use today. 其实,答案不然。历史上, 有过很多青春期的描写 与今天那些描述十分相似。
descriptions:n.摘要;说明,说明书;描述(description的复数形式);
So there's a famous quote by Shakespeare from "The Winter's Tale" 莎士比亚的《冬天的故事》里有这么一段
quote:v.引用;报价;举例说明;开价;为(企业的股份)上市;n.引用; Shakespeare:n.莎士比亚(英国剧作家);
where he describes adolescence as follows: "I would there were no age between ten and three-and-twenty, or that youth would sleep out the rest; for there is nothing in the between but getting wenches 他是这么描述青春期的: 年轻人要么就去安眠;
describes:v.描述;形容;把…称为;画出…图形;(describe的第三人称单数) wenches:n.少妇;乡下姑娘;vi.通奸;
with child, wronging the ancientry, stealing, fighting." (Laughter) 与孩子滥交、做出伤风败俗的偷窃和斗殴。”（笑声）
He then goes on to say, "Having said that, would any but these boiled brains of nineteen and two-and-twenty hunt in this weather?" (Laughter) 他接着说,“话虽如此,但除了那些十几二十岁 的脑残少年,还有谁 会在这种天气出来打猎啊？”（笑声）
So almost 400 years ago, Shakespeare was portraying adolescents in a very similar light to the light that we portray them in today, but today we try to understand their behavior in terms of the underlying changes that are going on in their brain. 所以约在400年前,莎士比亚 大脑那些看不到的变化 去理解他们的行为。
portraying:v.描绘;描写;表现;扮演;(portray的现在分词)
So for example, take risk-taking . We know that adolescents have a tendency to take risks. They do. 举个例子,爱冒险。我们知道青少年 有爱冒险的倾向,真的有的。
risk-taking:n.冒险;承担风险;adj.冒险的; tendency:n.倾向,趋势;癖好;
They take more risks than children or adults, and they are particularly prone to taking risks when they're with their friends. There's an important drive to become independent from one's parents and to impress one's friends in adolescence. 他们会比儿童或成人更爱冒险, 会更有冒险倾向
particularly:adv.特别地,独特地;详细地,具体地;明确地,细致地; prone:adj.俯卧的;有…倾向的,易于…的; impress:v.盖印;强征;传送;给予某人深刻印象;
But now we try to understand that in terms of the development of a part of their brain called the limbic system , so I'm going to show you the limbic system in red in the slide behind me, and also on this brain. 尝试去理解他们,
limbic system:n.(大脑)边缘系;
So the limbic system is right deep inside the brain, and it's involved in things like emotion processing and reward processing. It gives you the rewarding feeling out of doing fun t hings, in cluding taking risks. 它涉及了情感处理还有奖励感处理 在你做有趣的事情时,像冒险 它会产生一种收获的感觉。
processing:v.加工;处理;审核;数据处理;v.列队行进;缓缓前进;(process的现在分词)
It gives you the kick out of taking risks. 它让你在冒险中产生快感。
And this region, the regions within the limbic system, have been found to be hypersensitive to the rewarding feeling of risk-taking in adolescents compared with adults, and at the very same time, the prefrontal cortex, which you can see in blue in the slide here, which stops us taking excessive risks, is still very much in development in adolescents. 这部分区域,在边缘系统里的区域, 相比成年人,对青少年的冒险产生的收获感 与此同时,前额叶皮层, 但在青春期还是出于发育阶段。
hypersensitive:adj.过敏的;高灵敏度的;超感光度的; compared:adj.比较的,对照的; v.相比; (compare的过去式和过去分词) excessive:adj.过多的,极度的;过分的;
So brain research has shown that the adolescent brain undergoes really quite profound development, and this has implications for education, for rehabilitation , 经历了意义深远的的发育,
profound:adj.深厚的;意义深远的;渊博的; implications:n.蕴涵式;暗指,暗示;含蓄,含意;卷入(implication的复数); rehabilitation:n.康复;恢复;善后;平反;复权;
and intervention . The environment, including teaching, can and does shape the developing adolescent brain, and yet it's only relatively recently that we have been routinely educating teenagers in the West. 环境,包括教学, 能塑造青少年大脑的发育, 而且是到相当近的一段时期
intervention:n.介入;调停;妨碍; relatively:adv.相当程度上;相当地;相对地; routinely:adv.例行公事地;老一套地;
All four of my grandparents, for example, left school in their early adolescence. They had no choice. 就像,我的四个祖父母 在青春期早期就辍学了,他们也是没办法的。
And that's still the case for many, many teenagers around the world today. Forty percent of teenagers don't have access to secondary school education. 目前世界上很多地方还是存在这样的情况 没有机会进入学校接受初中教育。
secondary school:中等学校;
And yet, this is a period of life where the brain is particularly adaptable and malleable . 特别有可塑性的时期。
adaptable:adj.适合的;能适应的;可修改的; malleable:adj.可锻的;可塑的;有延展性的;易适应的;
It's a fantastic opportunity for learning and creativity.
fantastic:奇异的,空想的
So what's sometimes seen as the problem with adolescents — heightened risk-taking, poor impulse control, self-consciousness — shouldn't be stigmatized . 所以那些常被认为是青少年的问题的情况 高度爱冒险,易冲动不受控制
heightened:v.(使)加强,提高,增加;(heighten的过去式和过去分词) impulse:n.冲动;[电子]脉冲;刺激;神经冲动;推动力;v.推动; self-consciousness:n.自觉意识; stigmatized:adj.受非难的;被污名化的;v.污辱;指责(stigmatize的过去分词);
It actually reflects changes in the brain that provide an excellent opportunity for education and social development. Thank you. (Applause) 它实际是反映了大脑的变化
reflects:v.反映;映出(影像);反射;表明,表达;(reflect的第三人称单数)
(Applause) （掌声）