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PaulRothemund_2008-_详细讲述_dna_折叠_
So, people argue vigorously about the definition of life. 人们总在激烈的争执生命的定义
vigorously:adv.精神旺盛地,活泼地; definition:n.定义;清晰度;(尤指词典里的词或短语的)释义;解释;
They ask if it should have reproduction in it, or metabolism , or evolution . 它是否应该具有生殖,新陈代谢或者进化这些特征
reproduction:n.繁殖,生殖;复制;复制品; metabolism:n.[生理]新陈代谢; evolution:n.演变;进化;发展;渐进;
And I don't know the answer to that, so I'm not going to tell you. 我也不知道这个问题的答案,所以我不会和你们说这些
I will say that life involves computation . 我要说的是生命中有计算的过程
involves:v.包含;需要;牵涉;牵连;影响;(使)参加,加入(involve的第三人称单数) computation:n.估计,计算;
So this is a computer program. 这是一个计算机程序
Booted up in a cell, the program would execute and it could result in this person or with a small change , it could result in this person -- or another small change -- this person, or with a larger change, this dog or this tree or this whale. 包含在细胞里,这个程序将来会执行 执行的结果就是诞生了这样一个人 或者有些小的变动,它就会造出这样的一个人 又或者有一些其它的变动,就会是这个人 或者是个大一点的变化,也许会变成这只狗 或者是这棵树,或是这条鲸鱼
execute:vt.实行;执行;处死; small change:n.小面额硬币;(非正式)无关紧要的人(或事);
So now, if you take this metaphor as genome as program seriously, you have to consider that Chris Anderson is a computer-fabricated artifact , as is Jim Watson, 如果你来认真看待 把基因组比成一个程序这样的比喻 你得把Chris Anderson (TED的创始人) 想成是一样电脑合成的制品,就像Jim Watson(DNA结构的发现者之一)
metaphor:n.暗喻,隐喻;比喻说法; genome:n.基因组;染色体组; artifact:n.人工制品;手工艺品;
Craig Venter , as are all of us. Craig Venter(最早开始研究人类基因组序列的科学家之一) 以及我们每一个人一样.
Venter:n.腹部;腹面;母;
And in convincing yourself that this metaphor is true, there are lots of similarities between genetic programs and computer programs that could help to convince you. 为了说服你自己这个比喻是真的 如果注意到基因组程序和电脑程序 的许多共同点, 那这可以帮助你相信这个比喻
convincing:adj.令人信服的; v.使确信; (convince的现在分词) similarities:n.相仿性;类似性;相像处;(similarity的复数) genetic:adj.基因的;遗传学的; convince:v.使确信;使相信;说服,劝说;
But one to me that is most compelling is the peculiar sensitivity to small changes that can make large changes in biological development the output . 但最吸引我的一点 是对微小变化的特殊敏感性 造就了生物进化中的大的改变
compelling:adj.引人入胜的; v.强迫; (compel的现在分词) peculiar:adj.特殊的;独特的;奇怪的;罕见的;n.特权;特有财产; sensitivity:n.敏感;敏感性;过敏; biological:adj.生物学的;生物的;与生命过程有关的;加酶的;n.[药]生物制品; output:n.(人、机器、机构的)产量;输出;输出功率;输出量;v.输出;
A small mutation can take a two-wing fly and make it a four-wing fly. 一个很小的变异可以把一个双翅的苍蝇 变成一个四支翅膀的苍蝇
mutation:n.[遗]突变;变化;元音变化;
Or it could take a fly and put legs where its antennae should be. 或者也可以把这个苍蝇的腿长在它本该长触角的地方
antennae:n.[电讯]天线(等于aerial);[昆]触须;[植]蕊喙;直觉;
Or if you're familiar with "The Princess Bride ," 或者,如果你对 公主新娘 这个电影很熟悉的话
familiar:adj.熟悉的;常见的;亲近的;n.常客;密友; Princess:n.王妃;(除女王或王后外的)王室女成员;(尤指)公主;王公贵族夫人; Bride:n.新娘;
it could create a six-fingered man. 小的变异也可能造就一个有六个指头的人
Now, a hallmark of computer programs is just this kind of sensitivity to small changes. 现在, 电脑程序的一个重要特点 就是可以有像(生物世界里)这样的对微小变化的敏感性
hallmark:n.特点;品质证明;vt.给…盖上品质证明印记;使具有…标志;
If your bank account's one dollar and you flip a single bit, you could end up with a thousand dollars. 如果你的银行帐户里有一美元, 你只需要把这一位上的数换一下 你就能有一千美元
flip:n.浏览;空翻;轻抛;捻掷;v.迅速翻动;按(开关);按(按钮);开(或关)(机器等);
So these small changes are things that I think that -- they indicate to us that a complicated computation in development is underlying these amplified large changes. 所以就是这些小的变化让我想到 它们暗示着一个复杂计算过程 总是暗藏在这些被放大的变化背后
indicate:v.表明;显示;象征;暗示; complicated:adj.复杂的;难懂的;v.使复杂化;(complicate的过去分词和过去式) underlying:adj.根本的; v.构成…的基础; (underlie的现在分词) amplified:v.放大;详述(amplify的过去分词);adj.放大的;扩充的;
So now, all of this indicates that there are molecular programs underlying biology , and it shows the power of molecular programs, biology does. 所以,所有这些都在暗示着在生物中隐含着分子程序 而且生物本身也体现了这些分子程序的强大力量
indicates:v.表明指示,显示;(indicate的第三人称单数) molecular:adj.[化学]分子的;由分子组成的; biology:n.(一个地区全部的)生物;生物学;
And what I want to do is write molecular programs, potentially to build technology . 我想做的是写一些有潜力 发展为技术的分子程序
potentially:adv.可能地,潜在地; technology:n.技术;工艺;术语;
And there are a lot of people doing this, a lot of synthetic biologists doing this like Craig Venter and they concentrate on using cells. 而且有很多人也致力于这一方向 有很多合成生物学家在做这些,比如 Craig Venter 他们集中精力在利用细胞上
synthetic:adj.综合的;合成的,人造的;n.合成物; biologists:n.生物学家(biologist的复数); concentrate on:集中精力于;全神贯注于;
They're cell-oriented. 是细胞指向的
So my friends, molecular programmers and I, have a sort of bio-molecule centric approach . 我的朋友,分子程序师们以及我自己 有一套以生物-分子为中心的研究方法
centric:adj.中央的,中心的; approach:n.方法;路径;v.接近;建议;着手处理;
We're interested in using DNA, RNA and protein and building new languages for building things from the bottom up, using bio-molecules, potentially having nothing to do with biology. 我们想要利用DNA, RNA 以及蛋白质 为从头开始构建全新的事物创造一种语言 利用生物分子 我们希望将来能把这些用在生物学以外的其它领域中.
protein:n.蛋白质;
So, these are all the machines in a cell. 细胞中有所有这些 机器
There's a camera. 这是一部照相机
There's the solar panels of the cell, some switches that turn your genes on and off, the girders of the cell, motors that move your muscles . 这是细胞中的太阳能电池板 这是些调控基因的开关 这是细胞的大梁, 和驱动肌肉的马达.
panels:n.面板(panel的复数); v.嵌镶(panel的第三人称单数形式); genes:n.基因;(gene的复数) girders:[建]大梁;撑杆(girder的名词复数); muscles:n.肌肉(muscle的复数);
My little group of molecular programmers are trying to refashion all of these parts from DNA. 我的分子程序研究小组 正在试图从DNA开始重新设计所有这些部件
We're not DNA zealots , but DNA is the cheapest, easiest to understand and easy to program material to do this. 我们并不是DNA的狂热爱好者,但DNA是最便宜的 最容易理解的, 而且也适合于对其编程从而实现目的的.
zealots:n.狂热者(zealot的复数);奋锐党人;
And as other things become easier to use -- maybe protein -- we'll work with those. 如果其它的分子变得成容易去利用 例如蛋白质,我们也将会利用的.
If we succeed, what will molecular programming look like? 如果我们成功了,分子编程会是什么样子的呢?
You're going to sit in front of your computer. 你将坐在你的电脑面前
You're going to design something like a cell phone, and in a high-level language, you'll describe that cell phone. 你将能设计一些东西,比如手机 而且如果你用一种高级语言,你将能描绘这部手机
high-level:adj.高级的;高阶层的;在高空的; describe:v.描述;形容;把…称为;画出…图形;
Then you're going to have a compiler that's going to take that description and it's going to turn it into actual molecules that can be sent to a synthesizer and that synthesizer will pack those molecules into a seed. 之后你得有一部编译器 这部编译器将会接收这些指令 然后把它变成真正的分子 这些分子能被送到合成器 合成器又能把这些分子组装在一起变成一个种子
compiler:n.编译器;[计]编译程序;编辑者,汇编者; description:n.说明;形容;描写(文字);类型; molecules:n.[化学]分子,微粒;[化学]摩尔(molecule的复数); synthesizer:n.[电子]合成器;合成者;
And what happens if you water and feed that seed appropriately , is it will do a developmental computation, a molecular computation, and it'll build an electronic computer. 如果你接着给它浇水而且好好栽培它呢? 它会进化成一个计算过程吗? 一个分子计算过程,而且建立起一个电子计算机.
appropriately:adj.适当地;合适地;相称地; developmental:adj.发展的;启发的; electronic:adj.电子的;电子器件的;电子设备的;
And if I haven't revealed my prejudices already, 如果我还没透露我的观点的话
revealed:v.揭示;显示;露出;(reveal的过去分词和过去式) prejudices:成见;偏见;歧视(prejudice的复数);
I think that life has been about molecular computers building electrochemical computers building electronic computers which together with electrochemical computers, will build new molecular computers which will build new electronic computers and so forth. 我认为生命的过程是从分子计算机开始 建造电子化学的计算机 再接着建电子计算机 而这些电子计算机和电子化学的计算机 将会创造出新的分子计算机 这些新计算机又将会建造新的电子计算机,如此继续下去
electrochemical:adj.[物化]电化学的;[物化]电气化学的;
And if you buy all of this, and you think life is all about computation, as I do, then you look at big questions through the eyes of a computer scientist. 如果你相信所有这些的话 而且如果你像我一样相信生命全是关于计算的话 那你就是在用一个计算机科学家的眼光来看一个重要问题
So one big question is, how does baby know when to stop growing? 一个重要的问题是,婴儿是怎么知道什么时候停止生长的呢?
And for a molecular programmer, the question is how does your cell phone know when to stop growing? 作为一个分子程序员 这个问题就相当于,你的手机如果知道什么时候停止生长
(Laughter) (笑声)
Or how does a computer program know when to stop running? 或者说一个电脑程序如何知道什么时候停止运行
Or more to the point , how do you know if a program will ever stop? 或者更具体点, 你怎么知道一个程序将有可能会停下来
more to the point:说得更确切些;更重要的一点;
There are other questions like this, too. 当然还有其它类似的问题
One of them is Craig Venter's question. 其中一个就是Cragi Venter的问题
Turns out I think he's actually a computer scientist. 其实我认为他实际上是一个计算机科学家
He asked how big is the minimal genome that will give me a functioning micro-organism ? 他问,能发展成一个微型生物体 的最小基因组需要有多大
minimal:adj.最低的;最小限度的; micro-organism:n.微生物;
How few genes can I use? 我能少用几个基因?
This is exactly analogous to the question, what's the smallest program I can write that will act exactly like Microsoft Word? 这个问题其实和,我能写的 能实现像微软的Word一样功能的最小的程序有多小 是很类似的
analogous:adj.类似的;[昆]同功的;可比拟的;
(Laughter) (笑声)
And just as he's writing, you know, bacteria that will be smaller, he's writing genomes that will work, we could write smaller programs that would do what Microsoft Word does. 而且在他研究基因组的时候,你知道,细菌将会变小 他在研究的基因组能发挥功能 我们也能写更小的程序 而且让它完成像微软的 Word 的一样的功能
bacteria:n.[微]细菌; genomes:n.[遗]基因组(genome复数);
But for molecular programming, our question is, how many molecules do we need to put in that seed to get a cell phone? 但对于分子程序来说,我们的问题是 我们需要放多少分子到种子里而能让它 长 成一部手机
What's the smallest number we can get away with ? 我们需要的最小数量是多少
get away with:侥幸成功,侥幸逃脱;
Now, these are big questions in computer science . 现在,计算科学领域有一个重大的问题
computer science:n.计算机科学;
These are all complexity questions and computer science tells us that these are very hard questions. 这些都是复杂的问题 而且计算科学家告诉我们这些都是相当困难的问题
complexity:n.复杂性;难以理解的局势
Almost -- many of them are impossible. 几乎,或者说大部分都是不可能回答的
But for some tasks, we can start to answer them. 但对于其中的一些,我们可以开始尝试回答
So, I'm going to start asking those questions for the DNA structures I'm going to talk about next. 所以, 我现在要开始问这些 关于DNA结构的问题了,这也是我下面要讨论的
structures:n.结构; v.建造(structure的第三人称单数形式);
So, this is normal DNA, what you think of as normal DNA. 在一个正常的DNA里,那种你认为是正常的DNA
It's double-stranded , it's a double helix , has the As, Ts, Cs and Gs that pair to hold the strands together. 它有两股,是双螺旋 因为有A,T,C,G这些碱基才能把两股维系在一起
double-stranded:双链的; double helix:双螺旋; strands:n.线; v.搁浅;
And I'm going to draw it like this sometimes, just so I don't scare you. 我下面会用这种方式代表DNA结构 希望不会吓到你们
We want to look at individual strands and not think about the double helix. 我们只看这两股中的一股,不把它想成是双螺旋
individual:n.个人;有个性的人;adj.单独的;个别的;
When we synthesize it, it comes single-stranded , so we can take the blue strand in one tube and make an orange strand in the other tube and they're floppy when they're single-stranded. 当我们合成的时候,我们先合成单股的 这样我们可以在一个试管里合成这股蓝色的 而在另一个试管里合成这条橙色的 它们在单股的时候是松软的
single-stranded:adj.单股的; floppy:adj.松软的;叭嗒叭嗒响的;懒散的,邋遢的;n.软磁碟;
You mix them together and they make a rigid double helix. 但当你把它们混合在一起的时候,他们就形成了稳固的双螺旋
rigid:adj.严格的;僵硬的,死板的;坚硬的;精确的;
Now for the last 25 years, 在过去的二十五年里
Ned Seeman and a bunch of his descendants have worked very hard and made beautiful three-dimensional structures using this kind of reaction of DNA strands coming together. Ned Seeman(纽约大学化学系的一名教授,致力于DNA结构相关的纳米技术的研究)和几个他的学生 一直在辛苦研究,并利用这类DNA单股合在一起的反应 做出了漂亮的三维结构
a bunch of:一群;一束;一堆; descendants:n.后裔;后代;子孙;派生物;(descendant的复数) three-dimensional:adj.三维的;立体的;真实的; reaction:n.反应,感应;反动,复古;反作用;
But a lot of their approaches , though elegant , take a long time. 他们多数的方法虽然很精致,但需要很长的时间
approaches:v.靠近,接近; n.方式,方法,态度; elegant:adj.高雅的,优雅的;讲究的;简炼的;简洁的;
They can take a couple of years or it can be difficult to design. 也许会需要两三年的时间,或者会特别难以设计
So I came up with a new method a couple of years ago 所以我几年前想出了这样一个新方法
I call DNA origami that's so easy you could do it at home in your kitchen and design the stuff on a laptop . 我叫它DNA 折纸 这是项很简单的技术,你甚至可以在自家的厨房里完成 并用笔记本电脑设计这些东西
origami:n.折纸手工;折纸手工品; stuff:n.东西:物品:基本特征:v.填满:装满:标本: laptop:n.便携式电脑;笔记本电脑;
But to do it, you need a long single strand of DNA, which is technically very difficult to get. 不过,为了做这些,你需要一个长的单股DNA 而从技术角度讲,这种DNA又很难得到
So, you can go to a natural source . 所以,你可以找一个自然的来源
source:n.来源;水源;原始资料;
You can look in this computer-fabricated artifact and he's got a double-stranded genome that's no good. 现在来看这个电脑合成的加工品 他有一个并不太好的双股的基因组
You look in his intestines . There are billions of bacteria. 来看他的肠子, 有几十亿的细菌
intestines:n.[解剖]肠(intestine的复数);内脏;下水;
They're no good either. 这也不太妙
Double strand again, but inside them, they're infected with a virus that has a nice, long, single-stranded genome that we can fold like a piece of paper, and here's how we do it. 这确实也是双股的,但在内部,它被病毒感染了 其内部有一个很好的长长的单股基因组 我们可以折叠这个基因组,就像折叠一张纸 以下是我们如何做的
infected:adj.带菌的; v.传染; (infect的过去分词和过去式) fold:v.折叠;包;可叠平(以便贮存或携带);裹;n.褶;褶层;折叠部分;褶痕;
This is part of that genome. 这是基因组的一部分
We add a bunch of short synthetic DNAs that I call staples . 我们加入一些短小的合成的DNA结构, 我把这些短链叫作 订书针
staples:n.主要产物,主要原料(staple的复数);v.分类,选择(staple的第三人称单数);
Each one has a left half that binds the long strand in one place, and a right half that binds it in a different place and brings the long strand together like this. 每一个都有一小段可以和长链在某一个地方结全起来 而另一小段可以结合在长链的另一个地方 这样就可以把整个长链改变成这样的结构
binds:v.约束;捆绑;系;装订;n.窘境;(binds是bind的第三人称单数)
The net action of many of these on that long strand is to fold it into something like a rectangle . 许多这些小DNA和长链结合的总结果就是 把长链折叠成一个类似于长方形的形状
rectangle:n.矩形;长方形;
Now, we can't actually take a movie of this process , but Shawn Douglas at Harvard has made a nice visualization for us that begins with a long strand and has some short strands in it. 目前为止,我们还不能把这一过程拍成电影 但是哈佛大学的Shawn Douglas 为我们做了一个很棒的视觉展示 起初的时候有一条长长的链和一些短小的链
process:v.处理;加工;列队行进;n.过程,进行;方法,adj.经过特殊加工(或处理)的; Harvard:n.哈佛大学;哈佛大学学生; visualization:n.形象化;清楚地呈现在心;
And what happens is that we mix these strands together. 然后我们把它们混合在一起
We heat them up, we add a little bit of salt, we heat them up to almost boiling and cool them down, and as we cool them down, the short strands bind the long strands and start to form structure and you can see a little bit of double helix forming there. 之后加热,并加一点盐 把它们加热到几乎到沸腾了,再冷却下来 在冷却的过程中 那些短小的链会和长链 开始形成结构 你能在这看到有一点双螺旋形成了
When you look at DNA origami, you can see that what it really is, even though you think it's complicated, is a bunch of double helices that are parallel to each other and they're held together by places where short strands go along one helix and then jump to another one. 当你看DNA 折纸 的时候 你能看到它实际上到底是什么 即使你认为它是个很复杂的东西 其实只是一些双螺旋平行排列在一起 它们之所以能组合在一起 是因为有那些短小链一端和一个螺旋结合 同时另一端再和另一处结合
helices:n.螺旋线(helix的复数); parallel:adj.平行的; v.与…相似; n.极其相似的人(或情况、事件等);
So there's a strand that goes like this, goes along one helix and binds -- it jumps to another helix and comes back, that holds the long strand like this. 所以会有这样的一些链,和一个螺旋并行结合 同时又跳到另一条螺旋上再回来 这样能把长链组装成这个样子
Now, to show that we could make any shape or pattern that we wanted, I tried to make this shape. 为了展示我们能做成各种我们想要的形状和样式 我想做这样一个形状
I wanted to fold DNA into something that goes up over the eye, down the nose, up the nose, around the forehead , back down and end in a little loop like this. 我想让DNA这样向上越过眼睛 到鼻子下面,再回到鼻子上面,绕过额头 再回到下面,像这样完全一个圈
forehead:n.前额; loop:n.循环;回路;环路;圈;v.使成环;使绕成圈;成环形移动;
And so, I thought if this could work, anything could work. 然后我想如果能做成这个形状,那任何其它形状都可以
So I had the computer program design the short staples to do this. 之后我用电脑程序来设计小的 订书针 来实现这个目标
I ordered them, they came by FedEx . 我订购了这些,联邦快运送来的
FedEx:n.联邦快递(等于theFederalExpress);
I mixed them up, heated them, cooled them down, and I got 50 billion little smiley faces floating around in a single drop of water. 把它们混合起来,加热再冷却下来 得到了每滴水中有五百亿个微小 的 笑脸 瓢游着.
smiley:n.微笑符(等于smily);adj.微笑的;引起微笑的;
And each one of these is just one-thousandth the width of a human hair, OK? 而且每一个都只有 人类头发的一千之分一那么细.
width:n.宽度;广度;某一宽度的材料;(游泳池两长边之间的)池宽;
So, they're all floating around in solution , and to look at them, you have to get them on a surface where they stick. 它们在水里飘浮着,为了能看清楚 你需要能找到一个表面能让这些 笑脸 粘在上面
solution:n.解决方案;溶液;溶解;解答;
So, you pour them out onto a surface and they start to stick to that surface, and we take a picture using an atomic-force microscope . 所以,你把它们倒入一个表面上 它们开始粘在这个表面上 我们再用原子显微镜来照张相
pour:v.倒; n.流出; (已熔金属的)一次浇注量; microscope:n.显微镜;
It's got a needle , like a record needle , that goes back and forth , over the surface, bumps up and down and feels the height of the first surface. 原子显微镜有一个针,像是个记录针 在表面上往返运动 一会上一会下来感觉表面的高低
needle:n.针;针头;指针;缝针;v.穿过;刺激;拿针缝;拿针穿; back and forth:前后移动的,来回的,反复的; bumps:碰撞(bump的第三人称单数);碰撞(bump的复数);
It feels the DNA origami. 它能感觉到DNA 折纸
There's the atomic-force microscope working and you can see that the landing's a little rough. 这里有一个原子显微镜在工作 你能看到表面有一点起伏不平
When you zoom in, they've got, you know, weak jaws that flip over their heads and some of their noses get punched out, but it's pretty good. 当你放大来看,这些 笑脸 有些下巴与额头重叠在一起 有些 笑脸 的鼻子被打了,但总体来说是不错的
punched:v.拳打;以拳痛击;给…打孔;按(键);(punch的过去分词和过去式)
You can zoom in and even see the extra little loop, this little nano-goatee. 你能继续放大,看到更小的多出来的小圈 这些小小的纳米级的山羊胡子
extra:adj.额外的:n.额外的事物:adv.额外:另外:
Now, what's great about this is anybody can do this. 现在,这项技术的好处在于任何人都能做到
And so I got this in the mail about a year after I did this, unsolicited . 我一年前在邮件里收到了别人自发寄来的这样东西
unsolicited:adj.未经请求的;主动提供的;
Anyone know what this is? What is it? 有人知道这是什么吗?
It's China, right? 是中国的版图
So, what happened is, a graduate student in China, 事情是这样的,一个中国的研究生
Lulu Qian, did a great job. 钱露露(音译),做了一个很棒的工作
Lulu:n.俊秀;卓越的人;突出的事情;adj.特别出色的;第一流的;
She wrote all her own software to design and built this DNA origami, a beautiful rendition of China, which even has Taiwan, and you can see that's sort of on the world's shortest leash , right? 她自己写了程序 来设计并构建这些DNA 折纸 一份十分漂亮的中国版图,还包括台湾 而且你能看到可能是世界上最短的一条绳子了,是吧?
rendition:n.译文;演奏;提供;引渡逃奴; leash:n.皮带;束缚;v.束缚;用皮带绑住;
(Laughter) (笑声)
So, this works really well and you can make patterns as well as shapes, OK? 所以这个方法确实很好用 而且除了形状外你还能设计不同的样式
as well as:也;和…一样;不但…而且;
And you can make a map of the Americas and spell DNA with DNA. 你可以做一张美国的地图,并用DNA来拼写 DNA 这个单词
And what's really neat about it -- well, actually this all looks like nano-artwork, but it turns out that nano-artwork is just what you need to make nano-circuits. 最精彩的是 这些看上去都像是纳米级的艺术品 但实际上纳米级的艺术品 其实就是建造纳米级的电路板所需要的东西
neat:adj.整洁的;整齐的;有序的;有条理的;
So, you can put circuit components on the staples, like a light bulb and a light switch. 所以,你可以把电路板的组件安在这些 订书针 上 就像一个电灯泡和一个灯的开关
circuit:n.环行路线;电路;线路;巡回赛;v.巡回;周游; components:n.部件;组件;成份(component复数); light bulb:n.灯泡;
Let the thing assemble , and you'll get some kind of a circuit. 让这些东西组装起来,你就能得到一个电路板
assemble:vt.集合,聚集;装配;收集;vi.集合,聚集;
And then you can maybe wash the DNA away and have the circuit left over. 之后可以把DNA洗掉,而就只剩下电路板
So, this is what some colleagues of mine at Caltech did. 这是我在加州理工大学的一些同事们做的工作
colleagues:n.同事;同行(colleague的复数); Caltech:n.加利福尼亚理工学院;
They took a DNA origami, organized some carbon nano-tubes, made a little switch, you see here, wired it up, tested it and showed that it is indeed a switch. 他们把DNA 折纸 ,和用有机分子修饰过的碳纳米管 来组装成小的开关,看这里,把它绕起来 测试后发现它真的是一个开关
organized:adj.有组织的; v.组织; (organize的过去分词和过去式) carbon:n.[化学]碳;碳棒;复写纸;adj.碳的;碳处理的;
Now, this is just a single switch and you need half a billion for a computer, so we have a long way to go. 现在它只是单个开关 你需要五亿个这样的单元来组装电脑,所以我们还有很长的路要走
But this is very promising because the origami can organize parts just one-tenth the size of those in a normal computer. 但这却是很有前景的 因为这些 折纸 能组装只有普通电脑组件十分之一 那么大的组件
So it's very promising for making small computers. 所以这项技术是很有前景能组装出小计算机的
Now, I want to get back to that compiler. 现在,我想再回去编译器的话题上
The DNA origami is a proof that that compiler actually works. DNA 折纸 能证明编译器是真的能工作的
proof:n.证据;证实;adj.能抵御;可防护;
So, you start with something in the computer. 所以,你在电脑里开始了某一项工作
You get a high-level description of the computer program, a high-level description of the origami. 你有一个高级的关于电脑程序的说明 一个高级的关于 折纸 的说明
You can compile it to molecules, send it to a synthesizer and it actually works. 你能把这些编译成分子,把它发给组装的人 而且它还确实可以工作
And it turns out that a company has made a nice program that's much better than my code, which was kind of ugly , and will allow us to do this in a nice, visual computer-aided design way. 事实上有个公司发明了一个很好的程序 一个比我的丑陋程序要好得多的程序 这个程序能让我们更好的实现设计过程 用一种电脑辅助的视觉设计方法
ugly:adj.丑陋的;邪恶的;令人厌恶的; computer-aided:adj.[计]计算机辅助的,电脑辅助;
So, now you can say, all right, why isn't DNA origami the end of the story? 现在,你就能明白 为什么DNA 折纸 不是一个终结
You have your molecular compiler, you can do whatever you want. 你有分子的编译器,你能用它实现任何你想做的事
The fact is that it does not scale . 问题是它不能大规模生产
scale:n.规模;比例;鳞;刻度;天平;数值范围;v.衡量;攀登;剥落;生水垢;
So if you want to build a human from DNA origami, the problem is, you need a long strand that's 10 trillion trillion bases long. 所以如果你想从DNA 折纸 起发展成一个人 问题是,你需要很长的一股DNA 大概需要有十万亿万亿碱基的DNA链
trillion:n.[数]万亿;adj.万亿的;num.[数]万亿;
That's three light years worth of DNA, so we're not going to do this. 相当于三光年长的DNA 所以我们不能这么做
We're going to turn to another technology called algorithmic self-assembly of tiles . 我们得用别的技术 一种叫作模块的算术自行组装的方法
algorithmic:adj.[数]算法的;规则系统的; self-assembly:adj.自己组装的;n.自装配; tiles:n.[建]瓷砖(tile的复数形式);v.铺砖(tile的第三人称单数形式);
It was started by Erik Winfree, and what it does, it has tiles that are a hundredth the size of a DNA origami. 这项技术是由Erik Winfree 发明的 这项技术是 它有一些大约是DNA 折纸 百分之一长度的模块
You zoom in, there are just four DNA strands and they have little single-stranded bits on them that can bind to other tiles if they match. 如果你放大来看,那有四股DNA 这上面有很小的单股的小片段 如果相互匹配,这些小片段可以和别的模块连接在一起
And we like to draw these tiles as little squares. 我们用小的正方形来代表这些模块
And if you look at their sticky ends, these little DNA bits, you can see that they actually form a checkerboard pattern. 如果你注意到它们的粘性末端,这些小的DNA片段 你能看到它们能形成一个格子图案
sticky:adj.粘的;粘性的; checkerboard:n.棋盘;西洋跳棋棋盘;vt.在…上面纵横交错地排列;
So, these tiles would make a complicated, self-assembling checkerboard. 所以这些小的模块将会自动组装成一个复杂的格子图案
self-assembling:自组装;自组装分子;自我组装;
And the point of this, if you didn't catch that, is that tiles are a kind of molecular program and they can output patterns. 关键是你可能没有注意到 这些小模块其实类似于分子程序 而且他们能呈现出某种样式
And a really amazing part of this is that any computer program can be translated into one of these tile programs -- specifically , counting. 最神奇的地方是 任何电脑程序都能被 转录成这样一些模块程序,更确切地说,计数.
specifically:adv.特别地;明确地;
So, you can come up with a set of tiles that when they come together, form a little binary counter rather than a checkerboard. 你可以准备好一些模块 当这些模块被放在一起的时候, 能形成一个二进制的计数器 而不只是一个格子图案
come up with:提出;想出;赶上; binary:adj.[数]二进制的;二元的,二态的;
So you can read off binary numbers five, six and seven. 你能直接读出二进制的五,六和七
And in order to get these kinds of computations started right, you need some kind of input , a kind of seed. 为了能让这类的计算正确开始 你需要输入一些东西,类似于一个种子
computations:n.[数]计算;计算指令(computation的复数形式); input:n.投入; v.把(数据等)输入计算机;
You can use DNA origami for that. 你可以用DNA 折纸 来当种子
You can encode the number 32 in the right hand side of a DNA origami and when you add those tiles that count, they will start to count, they will read that 32 and they'll stop at 32. 你可以把32编码到 DNA 折纸 的右手边 然后当你加入那些能计数的模块后 它们将开始计数,当它们读到32时 他们就能停下来
encode:vt.(将文字材料)译成密码;编码,编制成计算机语言;
So, what we've done is we've figured out a way to have a molecular program know when to stop growing. 所以,我们所做的就是找到了一种方法 能让一个分子程序知道什么时候停止生长
It knows when to stop growing because it can count. 它知道什么时候停下来,因为它能计算
It knows how big it is. 它知道已经长了有多大
So, that answers that sort of first question I was talking about. 所以,这就能回答我提出的第一个问题
It doesn't tell us how babies do it, however. 但它还是不能告诉我们婴儿是如何做到这一点的.
So now, we can use this counting to try and get at much bigger things than DNA origami could otherwise. 现在,我们能用这种计数方法来试着做出 比DNA 折纸 能做到的更大的东西来
Here's the DNA origami, and what we can do is we can write 32 on both edges of the DNA origami and we can now use our watering can and water with tiles and we can start growing tiles off of that and create a square. 这是一个DNA 折纸 ,我们能做的是 在DNA 折纸 的两条边都写上32 我们现在能用 洒水壶 来给 这些模块 浇水 ,从这些模块再长出新的模块 来组成一个正方形
watering can:洒水壶;喷壶;
The counter serves as a template to fill in a square in the middle of this thing. 计数器就好像是个一模板 填充在正方形的中央
template:n.模板,样板;
So, what we've done is we've succeeded in making something much bigger than a DNA origami by combining DNA origami with tiles. 这样,我们就能成功地 利用DNA 折纸 和模块的组合 来合成比DNA 折纸 更大许多的东西
And the neat thing about it is, is that it's also reprogrammable. 巧妙的是,它能够重复编写
You can just change a couple of the DNA strands in this binary representation and you'll get 96 rather than 32. 通过改变二进制代表里的几股DNA 你就能得到一个96而不是32
representation:n.表现;代表;描述;陈述
And if you do that the origami's the same size, but the resulting square that you get is three times bigger. 在这前提下,如果你保持DNA 折纸 的大小不变 你就能得到一个比原来大三倍的正方形
So, this sort of recapitulates what I was telling you about development. 简单来概括一下 我所讲的生长
recapitulates:vi.概括;重述要点;摘要;vt.概括;重述要点;摘要;
You have a very sensitive computer program where small changes -- single, tiny, little mutations -- can take something that made one size square and make something very much bigger. 你有一个很敏感的电脑程序 其中很小的变化, 单个的,很微小的变异 能把一个本来能生产出一个某个尺寸的正方形 变成生产出一些特别大的东西来
sensitive:adj.敏感的;感觉的;易受影响的;n.敏感的人;有灵异能力的人; mutations:n.[遗]突变;变化;转变(mutation的复数形式);
Now, this using counting to compute and build these kinds of things by this kind of developmental process is something that also has bearing on Craig Venter's question. 这种利用计数来计算 并利用这种发展过程来 构建这种东西的过程 也是Craig Venter关心的问题
bearing:n.关系;影响;姿态;举止v.承受;忍受;承担责任;(bear的现在分词)
So, you can ask, how many DNA strands are required to build a square of a given size? 所以,如果你问,到底需要多少股DNA 来建造一个特定大小的正方形?
If we wanted to make a square of size 10, 100 or 1,000, if we used DNA origami alone, we would require a number of DNA strands that's the square of the size of that square, so we'd need 100, 10,000 or a million DNA strands. 如果我们想建一个10或者100或者1000那么大的正方形 如果我们只用DNA 折纸 我们得需要一个有正方形边长 平方那么多股的DNA 折纸 我们就得需要100或者10000甚至1百万股DNA
That's really not affordable . 这个数字实在是太大了
affordable:adj.负担得起的;
But if we use a little computation -- we use origami, plus some tiles that count -- then we can get away with using 100, 200 or 300 DNA strands. 但如果我们用一点计算的方法 我们用DNA 折纸 , 外加一些能计数的模块 那我们只需要100或者200或者300股DNA
And so we can exponentially reduce the number of DNA strands we use if we use counting, if we use a little bit of computation. 这样我们就能指数级的减少需要用的DNA 如果我们用一点计算的方法的话.
exponentially:adv.以指数方式;
And so computation is some very powerful way to reduce the number of molecules you need to build something, to reduce the size of the genome that you're building. 计算是一种很有效的方法 能用来减少为了建造这些东西而需要的分子数量 也可以减少你建造的基因组的大小
And finally , I'm going to get back to that sort of crazy idea about computers building computers. 最后,我还是回到那个 有关计算机再建造计算机的疯狂想法
finally:adv.终于;最终;(用于列举)最后;彻底地;
If you look at the square that you build with the origami and some counters growing off it, the pattern that it has is exactly the pattern that you need to make a memory. 看着这个用DNA 折纸 建造的正方形 和从它长出来的计数器 它的样式就和你要建一个内存所需要的样式 是一模一样的
So if you affix some wires and switches to those tiles, rather than to the staple strands, you affix them to the tiles, then they'll self-assemble the somewhat complicated circuits -- the de-multiplexer circuits that you need to address this memory. 所以如果你在模块上附上一些电线和开关 或者说把它们附在模块上,而不是DNA短链上 之后他们就能自己组装成有一点复杂的电路 那种你在内存里会需要的解复用器
affix:vt.粘上;署名;将罪责加之于;n.[语]词缀;附加物; self-assemble:vi.自组装; somewhat:n.几分;某物;adv.有点;多少;几分;稍微; circuits:n.环行路线;电路;线路;巡回赛;v.巡回;周游;(circuit的第三人称单数和复数)
So you can actually make a complicated circuit using a little bit of computation. 所以你能用一点计算来建一个 复杂的电路.
It's a molecular computer building an electronic computer. 这是一个分子计算机建电子计算机的过程
Now, you ask me, how far have we gotten down this path? 你也许会问,在这条路上我们已经走了多远?
Experimentally , this is what we've done in the last year. 从实验角度来说,这是我们去年完成的.
Experimentally:adv.实验上;用实验方法;实验式地;
Here is a DNA origami rectangle, and here are some tiles growing from it. 这里有一个DNA 折纸 的长方形 和一些从它长出来的模块.
And you can see how they count. 你能看出来它们是怎么计数的.
One, two, three, four, five, six, nine, 10, 11, 12, 17. 一,二,三,四,五,六,九,十,十一,十二,十七
So it's got some errors, but at least it counts up. 它有错误,但至少能越数越大
(Laughter) (笑声)
So it turns out we actually had this idea nine years ago, and that's about the time constant for how long it takes to do these kinds of things, so I think we made a lot of progress. 实际上,我们九年前就开始有了这一想法 这大约就是做这件事必须得投入的时间 我觉得我们有很大进步.
We've got ideas about how to fix these errors. 我们现在也有想法去校正这些错误.
And I think in the next five or 10 years, we'll make the kind of squares that I described and maybe even get to some of those self-assembled circuits. 我认为在未来的五或十年里 我们将能做出我刚才形容的那种正方形 或者还能做一些那种自我组装的电路.
described:v.描述;形容;把…称为;做…运动;(describe的过去分词和过去式) self-assembled:自组装;
So now, what do I want you to take away from this talk? 我希望你们今天能从我的讲解里学到什么呢?
I want you to remember that to create life's very diverse and complex forms, life uses computation to do that. 我希望你们能记住 为了创造出生物体非常多样和复杂的形式 生物要用计算来实现这一目标.
diverse:adj.不同的;多种多样的;变化多的;
And the computations that it uses, they're molecular computations, and in order to understand this and get a better handle on it, as Feynman said, you know, we need to build something to understand it. 而且它所用的计算是分子计算形式, 为了能理解并更好的利用这一点 就像费曼说的, 为了理解某样东西,我们得建造一个出来
handle:n.[建]把手;柄;手感;口实;v.处理;操作;运用;买卖;触摸;
And so we are going to use molecules and refashion this thing, rebuild everything from the bottom up, using DNA in ways that nature never intended , using DNA origami, and DNA origami to seed this algorithmic self-assembly. 我们将用分子,重新设计这些东西 并从头开始从新建造每一样东西 用一种自然从未用过的方式 用DNA 折纸 和DNA 折纸 引导的算法的自我组装.
intended:adj.预定的;计划的;v.打算;计划;想要;(intend的过去分词和过去式)
You know, so this is all very cool, but what I'd like you to take from the talk, hopefully from some of those big questions, is that this molecular programming isn't just about making gadgets . 你知道的,所有这些都很棒 但我希望你们能从这个演讲 提及的问题当中有所收获 这类的分子程序不仅仅是建一些小工具
gadgets:n.小配件;小工具(gadget的复数);
It's not just making about -- it's making self-assembled cell phones and circuits. 它不仅仅是能造..... 能用来建自我组装的手机和电路
What it's really about is taking computer science and looking at big questions in a new light, asking new versions of those big questions and trying to understand how biology can make such amazing things. Thank you. 真正关键的是,利用计算科学 并且用一种新的眼光看待大问题 从新的角度来问这些问题 并且试图理解生物 是如何创造这些另人惊奇的事物的. 谢谢.
(Applause) (掌声)