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MichaelDickinson_2013X-_苍蝇是如何飞行的_
I grew up watching Star Trek . I love Star Trek . 我是看《星际迷航》长大的,我非常喜欢
Trek:v.长途跋涉;远足,徒步旅行;n.长途跋涉(尤指在山区);
Star Trek made me want to see alien creatures , creatures from a far-distant world. 《星际迷航》使得我很想看看外星生物 来自很远很远的世界的生物
creatures:n.生物;动物;(具有某种特征的)人(creature的复数) far-distant:adj.非常遥远的;
But basically , I figured out that I could find those alien creatures right on Earth. 但基本上,我发现我可以 在地球上找到这些外星生物
basically:adv.主要地,基本上;
And what I do is I study insects. 我所做的就是去研究昆虫
I'm obsessed with insects, particularly insect flight. 我对昆虫着迷,特别是昆虫的飞行
obsessed:v.使痴迷;使迷恋;使着迷;(obsess的过去式和过去分词) particularly:adv.特别地,独特地;详细地,具体地;明确地,细致地;
I think the evolution of insect flight is perhaps one of the most important events in the history of life. 我认为昆虫飞行的进化,也行是 生命历史上一个最重要的事件
evolution:n.演变;进化;发展;渐进;
Without insects, there'd be no flowering plants. 如果没有会飞行的昆虫,那就没有有花的植物
Without flowering plants, there would be no clever, fruit-eating primates giving TED Talks. 没有有花的植物,那也就没有 聪明的,喜欢吃水果的猿长类动物在这里做TED讲座
primates:n.灵长类;
(Laughter) （笑声）
Now, 现在
David and Hidehiko and Ketaki gave a very compelling story about the similarities between fruit flies and humans, and there are many similarities, and so you might think that if humans are similar to fruit flies, David,Hidehiko和Hetaki 说了一个非常吸引眼球的一个故事 关于果蝇和人类的相似性 相似的地方非常多 你们觉得如果人类和果蝇很相似
compelling:adj.引人入胜的; v.强迫; (compel的现在分词) similarities:n.相仿性;类似性;相像处;(similarity的复数)
the favorite behavior of a fruit fly might be this, for example -- 那么果蝇最喜欢的动作可能会是这样
fruit fly:n.果蝇;实蝇;
(Laughter) (笑声)
but in my talk, I don't want to emphasize on the similarities between humans and fruit flies, but rather the differences, and focus on the behaviors that I think fruit flies excel at doing. 但我现在不想强调这个相似性 而是关注相异的地方 关注果蝇擅长的事情
emphasize:v.强调;重视;着重;使突出; excel:v.超过;擅长;
And so I want to show you a high-speed video sequence of a fly shot at 7,000 frames per second in infrared lighting, and to the right, off-screen , is an electronic looming predator that is going to go at the fly. 所以,我想让你们看一个高速录像 通过每秒7000帧红外拍摄的苍蝇 在屏幕的外的右边,有一只会发电的捕食者 正在靠近这个苍蝇
sequence:n.顺序; v.按顺序排列; frames:n.[计][电子][通信]帧,[电影]画面;[建][计]框架;眼镜架(frame的复数); infrared:n.红外线;adj.红外线的; off-screen:在观众视线以外发生的; electronic:adj.电子的;电子器件的;电子设备的; looming:v.人惊恐地隐现;显得突出;逼近(loom的现在分词) predator:n.[动]捕食者;[动]食肉动物;掠夺者;
The fly is going to sense this predator. 这个苍蝇会察觉到这个捕食者
It is going to extend its legs out. 然后会拔腿而跑
extend:vt.延伸; vi.延伸;
It's going to sashay away to live to fly another day. 看似不经已地逃走 再活上一天
sashay:vi.滑步而走;到处走动;vt.使走动;使行进;n.远足;一种方块舞;快滑舞步;
Now I have carefully cropped this sequence to be exactly the duration of a human eye blink , so in the time that it would take you to blink your eye, the fly has seen this looming predator, 我小心地裁剪了这个片子 使得它跟人的眨眼时间一致 使得当你眨眼的时候 这个苍蝇已经看到了捕食者
duration:n.持续时间;期间; blink:vt.眨眼;使…闪烁;vi.眨眼;闪烁;n.眨眼;瞬间;闪光;
estimated its position, initiated a motor pattern to fly it away, beating its wings at 220 times a second as it does so. 估计好了它的位置,启动了飞行模式 以每秒220下的速度拍打着翅膀
estimated:adj.估计的;预计的;估算的; initiated:v.开始;发起;创始;使了解;传授;吸收;(initiate的过去式和过去分词)
I think this is a fascinating behavior that shows how fast the fly's brain can process information. 我觉得这是个让人瞠目结舌的行为 这体现了苍蝇大脑处理信息的速度
fascinating:adj.极有吸引力的;迷人的;v.深深吸引;迷住;(fascinate的现在分词) process:v.处理;加工;列队行进;n.过程,进行;方法,adj.经过特殊加工(或处理)的;
Now, flight -- what does it take to fly? 现在,我们来看航行。飞行需要什么？
Well, in order to fly, just as in a human aircraft , you need wings that can generate sufficient aerodynamic forces, you need an engine sufficient to generate the power required for flight, and you need a controller, 如果要飞起来,像人造航空器一样 你需要能够产生足够的空气动力的翅膀 你需要一个能够产生足够马力的引擎来支持航行 而且你需要一个控制器
aircraft:n.飞机,航空器; generate:v.产生;引起; sufficient:adj.足够的;充分的; aerodynamic:adj.空气动力学的,[航]航空动力学的;
and in the first human aircraft, the controller was basically the brain of Orville and Wilbur sitting in the cockpit . 在人类第一个飞行器里,控制器是基本上是 坐在座舱里的Orville和Wilbur的大脑
cockpit:n.驾驶员座舱;战场;
Now, how does this compare to a fly? 这个跟苍蝇比较起来怎样呢？
compare:v.比较;对比;n.比较;
Well, I spent a lot of my early career trying to figure out how insect wings generate enough force to keep the flies in the air. 在我职业生涯的早期,我花了很多时间尝试弄明白 苍蝇的翅膀是怎样提供足够的力量使得它可以悬浮在空中
career:n.职业;事业;生涯;经历;
And you might have heard how engineers proved that bumblebees couldn't fly. 你也行听工程师们证明过 大黄蜂不会飞
bumblebees:n.[昆]大黄蜂;
Well, the problem was in thinking that the insect wings function in the way that aircraft wings work. But they don't. 问题是（他们）是用飞行器翅膀的工作原理来解释昆虫翅膀的 而实际上不是这样的
in the way:妨碍;挡道;
And we tackle this problem by building giant , dynamically scaled model robot insects that would flap in giant pools of mineral oil where we could study the aerodynamic forces. 为解决这个问题,我们可以制造巨大的 能够动态伸缩的机器昆虫模型 它会使用大量矿物油来驱动它拍打翅膀 我们就可以从中学习空气动力学
tackle:v.处理; n.用具; giant:n.巨人;伟人;巨兽;adj.巨大的;特大的 dynamically:adv.动态地;充满活力地;不断变化地; scaled:adj.有鳞的; v.刮去鳞片; flap:n.拍打,拍打声; v.拍动; (帽边等)垂下; mineral oil:n.矿物油(用于制造药品和化妆品);
And it turns out that the insects flap their wings in a very clever way, at a very high angle of attack that creates a structure at the leading edge of the wing, 结果是,我们发现昆虫拍打翅膀的方式 很巧妙。 创建一个结构的机翼前沿
structure:n.结构;构造;建筑物;vt.组织;构成;建造; leading edge:adj.尖端的,前沿的;领先优势的;
a little tornado-like structure called a leading edge vortex , and it's that vortex that actually enables the wings to make enough force for the animal to stay in the air. 称为前缘涡,有点类似龙卷风的结构 这个漩涡实际上让翅膀 可以产生足够的力量让它们悬浮在空中
vortex:n.[航][流]涡流;漩涡;(动乱,争论等的)中心;旋风; enables:v.使得; (enable的第三人称单数)
But the thing that's actually most -- so, what's fascinating is not so much that the wing has some interesting morphology . 但最让人着迷的 不是翅膀那有趣的形态学
morphology:n.形态学,形态论;[语]词法,[语]词态学;
What's clever is the way the fly flaps it, which of course ultimately is controlled by the nervous system , and this is what enables flies to perform these remarkable aerial maneuvers . 最聪明的是苍蝇拍打翅膀的方式 它最终还是受控与神经系统 这使得苍蝇可以完成 这些让人叹绝的空中杂技
flaps:n.马唇肿胀; ultimately:adv.最终;最后;归根结底;终究; nervous system:n.神经系统; perform:v.表演;执行;履行;演出;工作,运转(好/不好); remarkable:adj.卓越的;非凡的;值得注意的; aerial:adj.从飞机上的;空中的;空气中的;地表以上的;n.天线; maneuvers:n.军事演习(maneuver的复数);
Now, what about the engine? 那么,这个引擎怎样呢？
The engine of the fly is absolutely fascinating. 苍蝇的引擎绝对让人着迷
absolutely:adv.绝对地;完全地;
They have two types of flight muscle : so-called power muscle, which is stretch-activated, which means that it activates itself and does not need to be controlled on a contraction-by-contraction basis by the nervous system. 它们有两种用于航行的肌肉 所谓的力量型肌肉,这是舒张时激活的 这意味着它自己激活自己,并不需要被控制于 一个基于收缩的中枢神经系统
muscle:n.肌肉;力量;v.加强;使劲搬动;使劲挤出; so-called:adj.所谓的;号称的; activates:v.[电子][物]激活;活化(activate的三单形式);
It's specialized to generate the enormous power required for flight, and it fills the middle portion of the fly, so when a fly hits your windshield , it's basically the power muscle that you're looking at. 它有专门来生成所需的飞行的巨大的力量 它填充着中间的部分 所以,当一只苍蝇撞到你的挡风玻璃, 你看到的基本上它的力量型肌肉
specialized:adj.专业的; v.专门研究(或从事); (specialize的过去式和过去分词) enormous:adj.庞大的,巨大的;凶暴的,极恶的; portion:n.部分;(食物的)一份;分担的责任;v.把…分成若干份(或部分); windshield:n.挡风玻璃;
But attached to the base of the wing is a set of little, tiny control muscles that are not very powerful at all, but they're very fast, and they're able to reconfigure the hinge of the wing on a stroke-by-stroke basis, 但附加到机翼的基部 是一套的小型的控制肌肉 这不是非常强大,但他们速度非常快, 他们就能够重新配置的机翼转轴 不断拍打的着
attached:adj.依恋;v.重视;把…固定;(attach的过去分词和过去式) muscles:n.肌肉(muscle的复数); reconfigure:vt.重新配置; hinge:n.铰链,折叶; v.用铰链连接; (门等)装有蝶铰;
and this is what enables the fly to change its wing and generate the changes in aerodynamic forces which change its flight trajectory . 这使苍蝇能够改变它的翅膀 并在产生在气动力学上的变化 这改变其飞行轨迹
trajectory:n.[物]轨道,轨线;[航][军]弹道;
And of course, the role of the nervous system is to control all this. 当然,中枢神经系统的作用是控制所有这一切
So let's look at the controller. 现在,让我们看看该控制器
Now flies excel in the sorts of sensors that they carry to this problem. 现在苍蝇擅长各种传感器 他们引出这一问题
sensors:n.[自]传感器,感应器;感测器(sensor的复数);
They have antennae that sense odors and detect wind detection . 它们身上有天线,能够感觉气味和检测风向
antennae:n.[电讯]天线(等于aerial);[昆]触须;[植]蕊喙;直觉; odors:气味;名声(odor的复数); detection:n.侦查,探测;发觉,发现;察觉;
They have a sophisticated eye which is the fastest visual system on the planet. 他们的复眼 是这个星球上最快的视觉系统
sophisticated:adj.复杂的;老练的;见多识广的;水平高的; visual:adj.视觉的,视力的;栩栩如生的;
They have another set of eyes on the top of their head. 它们头上有另一套眼睛。
We have no idea what they do. 我们也不知道它们用来做什么
They have sensors on their wing. 它们在翼上也有传感器
Their wing is covered with sensors, including sensors that sense deformation of the wing. 其机翼上都是传感器,包括一些 感觉机翼形变的传感器
deformation:n.变形;
They can even taste with their wings. 它们甚至可以用它们的翅膀分辨味道
One of the most sophisticated sensors a fly has is a structure called the halteres . 苍蝇最复杂的传感器之一 是一种结构被称为笼头。
halteres:n.(昆虫的)平衡棒; v.给…套上笼头(系上缰绳); (halter的复数)
The halteres are actually gyroscopes . 笼头其实是陀螺仪。
gyroscopes:n.陀螺仪(gyroscope的复数);
These devices beat back and forth about 200 hertz during flight, and the animal can use them to sense its body rotation and initiate very, very fast corrective maneuvers. 在飞行中,这些设备以约 200 赫兹振动着 可以使用它们来感受其身体的旋转 并启动非常非常快速的纠正动作。
devices:n.[机][计]设备;[机]装置;[电子]器件(device的复数); back and forth:前后移动的,来回的,反复的; hertz:n.[物]赫兹(频率单位); rotation:n.旋转;循环,轮流; corrective:adj.矫正的;惩治的;n.矫正物;改善法;
But all of this sensory information has to be processed by a brain, and yes, indeed, flies have a brain, a brain of about 100,000 neurons. 但所有这些感官信息需要由一个大脑来处理 事实上,苍蝇有一个大脑 脑内神经元约 100,000个
sensory:adj.感觉的;知觉的;传递感觉的; processed:v.加工,处理;审核;列队行进;(process的过去式和过去分词)
Now several people at this conference have already suggested that fruit flies could serve neuroscience because they're a simple model of brain function. 现在在这个会议的一些人 已经提议果蝇可帮助神经科学 因为它们是大脑功能的简单模型
conference:n.会议;研讨会;商讨会;体育协会(或联合会) neuroscience:n.神经系统科学(指神经病学,神经化学等);
And the basic punchline of my talk is, 我基本的观点就是
punchline:n.结尾警语;妙语如珠;
I'd like to turn that over on its head. 我想关注在它的头上
I don't think they're a simple model of anything. 我并不认为它们是一个什么简单的模型
And I think that flies are a great model. 我认为苍蝇是一个伟大的模型
They're a great model for flies. 它们是苍蝇的伟大的模型
(Laughter) （笑声）
And let's explore this notion of simplicity . 并让我们研究一下这种简单性
explore:v.探索:探测:探险: notion:n.观念;信念;理解; simplicity:n.朴素;简易;天真;愚蠢;
So I think, unfortunately , a lot of neuroscientists , we're all somewhat narcissistic . 所以我认为,不幸的是,大量的神经学家 我们都有些自恋
unfortunately:adv.不幸地; neuroscientists:n.神经系统科学家; somewhat:n.几分;某物;adv.有点;多少;几分;稍微; narcissistic:adj.自恋的;自我陶醉的;
When we think of brain, we of course imagine our own brain. 当我们想到大脑时,我们当然想到的是我们自己的大脑
But remember that this kind of brain, which is much, much smaller — instead of 100 billion neurons, it has 100,000 neurons — but this is the most common form of brain on the planet and has been for 400 million years. 但请记住到这种大脑 这是小的很多的 没有 1000 个亿神经元,它有 100,000 个神经元 — — 但这是大脑在这个星球上最常见的形式 它存在了4 亿年
And is it fair to say that it's simple? 这可以说它很简单吗？
Well, it's simple in the sense that it has fewer neurons, but is that a fair metric ? 在某种意义上说这是比较简单的,因为它有较少的神经元 但是这是一个公平的指标吗？
metric:adj.米制的;公制的;按公制制作的;用公制测量的;
And I would propose it's not a fair metric. 我不觉得它是一个公平的指标
propose:v.建议;提议;求婚;打算;
So let's sort of think about this. I think we have to compare -- 现在,让我们随便想想。我认为我们必须进行比较
(Laughter) — we have to compare the size of the brain with what the brain can do. （笑声） 我们要比较下大脑的大小 比较下大脑可以做什么
So I propose we have a Trump number, and the Trump number is the ratio of this man's behavioral repertoire to the number of neurons in his brain. 所以我建议我们用一个Trump号 Trump号是这个人的比例 由他的行为除以他大脑中神经元的数目得出
Trump:n.王牌;主牌花色;v.出王牌赢(牌);;赢;胜过;打败; behavioral:adj.行为的; repertoire:n.全部节目;计算机指令系统;(美)某人或机器的全部技能;
We'll calculate the Trump number for the fruit fly. 我们会计算出实蝇的Trump号
Now, how many people here think the Trump number is higher for the fruit fly? 现在,在这里有多少人觉得Trump号 比实蝇的要高？
(Applause) （掌声）
It's a very smart, smart audience. 观众们都很聪明
Yes, the inequality goes in this direction, or I would posit it. 不平等是朝着这个方向走的,或者让我推断下
posit:vt.安置;假定;n.假设;设想;
Now I realize that it is a little bit absurd to compare the behavioral repertoire of a human to a fly. 现在认识到它是有点荒谬 要比较人和苍蝇的行为
absurd:adj.荒谬的;可笑的;n.荒诞;荒诞作品;
But let's take another animal just as an example. Here's a mouse. 但让我们来看另一种动物,只是作为一个例子。这是一只老鼠
A mouse has about 1,000 times as many neurons as a fly. 老鼠比苍蝇有约 1,000 倍多的神经元
I used to study mice. When I studied mice, 我以前研究老鼠。当我研究老鼠的时候
I used to talk really slowly. 我说话真的很慢
And then something happened when I started to work on flies. 然后当我开始研究苍蝇的时候发生了一些状况
(Laughter) （笑声）
And I think if you compare the natural history of flies and mice, it's really comparable . They have to forage for food. 我觉得如果你比较苍蝇和老鼠的自然史 它是可比的。它们得去觅食
natural history:n.自然史; comparable:adj.可比较的;比得上的; forage:n.饲料;草料;搜索;vi.搜寻粮草;搜寻;
They have to engage in courtship . 它们不得不求爱
engage:v.吸引,占用;使参加;雇佣;使订婚;预定; courtship:n.求爱;求婚;求爱期;
They have sex. They hide from predators . 它们要发生性关系。它们要躲避捕食者
predators:n.捕食性动物;实行弱肉强食的人(或机构);掠夺者;(predator的复数)
They do a lot of the similar things. 它们做了很多类似的事情
But I would argue that flies do more. 但我想说苍蝇做更多
So for example, I'm going to show you a sequence, and I have to say, some of my funding comes from the military , so I'm showing this classified sequence and you cannot discuss it outside of this room. Okay? 例如,我要向您展示一个影片 我不得不说,我的一些资金来自军方 因此,我将展示这个机密影片 你不能在外面讨论这个。好吗？
funding:n.基金;资金;提供资金;v.为…提供资金;拨款给;(fund的现在分词) military:adj.军事的;军人的;适于战争的;n.军队;军人; classified:adj.机密的; v.将…分类; (classify的过去分词和过去式)
So I want you to look at the payload at the tail of the fruit fly. 我想让你你看这个载荷 在果蝇的尾巴上
payload:n.(导弹,火箭等的)有效载荷,有效负荷; (工厂,企业等)工资负担;
Watch it very closely, and you'll see why my six-year-old son now wants to be a neuroscientist. 仔细看好了 你将看到为什么我的六岁儿子 现在想要一个神经学家
Wait for it. 等待下
Pshhew. 噗噗
So at least you'll admit that if fruit flies are not as clever as mice, they're at least as clever as pigeons . (Laughter) 所以至少你得承认,如果果蝇灭有老鼠聪明 它们至少和鸽子一样聪明。（笑声）
pigeons:n.鸽子(pigeon的复数);杂波;
Now, I want to get across that it's not just a matter of numbers but also the challenge for a fly to compute everything its brain has to compute with such tiny neurons. 现在,我想要传达的并不只是数字 而且是苍蝇面临的计算上的挑战 一切都得靠它的大脑,而却只有很少的的神经元
compute:vt.计算;估算;用计算机计算;vi.计算;估算;推断;n.计算;估计;推断;
So this is a beautiful image of a visual interneuron from a mouse that came from Jeff Lichtman's lab, and you can see the wonderful images of brains that he showed in his talk. 这就是老鼠的中间神经元的美丽图片 那是来自Jeff Lichtman的实验室 你可以看到大脑的精彩画面 他在他的研究种展示过
images:n.印象;声誉;形象;画像;雕像;(image的第三人称单数和复数)
But up in the corner, in the right corner, you'll see, at the same scale, a visual interneuron from a fly. 但在右上角,你看 在相同的比例下,从苍蝇的中间神经元的图像
And I'll expand this up. 我就会放大这个图像
expand:v.扩张;使膨胀;详述;发展;张开,展开;
And it's a beautifully complex neuron . 它是一个精美复杂的神经元
complex:adj.复杂的;合成的;n.复合体;综合设施; neuron:n.[解剖]神经元,神经单位;
It's just very, very tiny, and there's lots of biophysical challenges with trying to compute information with tiny, tiny neurons. 它非常非常的小,尝试用这些极为微小的神经元来计算 充满了大量的生物物理挑战
biophysical:生物物理学的;
How small can neurons get? Well, look at this interesting insect. 神经元能有多小？那么,来看看这个有趣的昆虫
It looks sort of like a fly. It has wings, it has eyes, it has antennae, its legs, complicated life history , it's a parasite , it has to fly around and find caterpillars to parasatize, 它看起来像一只苍蝇。它有翅膀,眼睛 它有天线,双腿,复杂的生活史, 它是一种寄生虫,它得在周围飞,找毛毛虫 然后在上面寄生,
complicated:adj.复杂的;难懂的;v.使复杂化;(complicate的过去分词和过去式) life history:n.生平;(生物的)生活史; parasite:n.寄生虫;食客; caterpillars:n.毛毛虫(caterpillar的复数);
but not only is its brain the size of a salt grain , which is comparable for a fruit fly, it is the size of a salt grain. 不仅仅它的大脑只有盐粒大小 跟果蝇相当 它只有一盐粒的大小
grain:n.粮食; v.把…作成细粒;
So here's some other organisms at the similar scale. 这里有类似规模的生物组织
organisms:n.[生物]生物体(organism的复数);[生物]有机体;
This animal is the size of a paramecium and an amoeba , and it has a brain of 7,000 neurons that's so small -- you know these things called cell bodies you've been hearing about, where the nucleus of the neuron is? 这个动物跟草履虫和变形虫中大小相当 它有一个有7,000 个神经元的大脑,是太小了 你应该知道这些叫做细胞体的东西 神经元的核心在哪里？
paramecium:n.[无脊椎]草履虫,草履虫属; amoeba:n.阿米巴;变形虫(单细胞生物); nucleus:n.核,核心;原子核;
This animal gets rid of them because they take up too much space. 这种动物去掉了它们,因为它们占用太多空间
So this is a session on frontiers in neuroscience. 这是一个神经科学的前沿的会议
session:n.会议;(法庭的)开庭;(议会等的)开会;学期;讲习会;
I would posit that one frontier in neuroscience is to figure out how the brain of that thing works. 我会认为这一神经科学前沿的研究是要找出大脑是如何工作的
But let's think about this. How can you make a small number of neurons do a lot? 但让我们想一想。怎样可以使少量的神经元能做很多事情？
And I think, from an engineering perspective , you think of multiplexing . 我认为,从工程的角度看 你会想到多路复用
engineering:n.工程;工程学;v.密谋策划;设计制造;改变…的基因;(engineer的现在分词) perspective:n.观点;远景;透视图;adj.透视的; multiplexing:n.多路; adj.多部的; v.多路复用; (multiplex的现在分词);
You can take a hardware and have that hardware do different things at different times , or have different parts of the hardware doing different things. 您可以用硬件,并用该硬件 在不同的时间做不同的事情 或者用不同部分的硬件做不同的事情
hardware:n.计算机硬件;五金器具; at different times:在不同的时间;在不同的时代;
And these are the two concepts I'd like to explore. 我想要探讨这两个概念
And they're not concepts that I've come up with , but concepts that have been proposed by others in the past. 这些都不是我自己想出来的概念 但在过去由其他人提出的概念
come up with:提出;想出;赶上; proposed:adj.建议的;推荐的;v.提议;建议;计划;求婚;(propose的过去分词和过去式)
And one idea comes from lessons from chewing crabs . 一个来自于咀嚼螃蟹的想法
crabs:n.蟹类;吊钳;脾气坏的人(crab的复数);v.捕蟹;抱怨;侧航(crab的三单形式);
And I don't mean chewing the crabs. 我不是指咀嚼螃蟹
I grew up in Baltimore , and I chew crabs very, very well. 我在巴尔的摩长大,我非常会咀嚼螃蟹
Baltimore:n.巴尔的摩(美国一座港市);
But I'm talking about the crabs actually doing the chewing. 但我说的是蟹咀的咀嚼行为
Crab chewing is actually really fascinating. 蟹咀的咀嚼行为其实真的令人着迷
Crabs have this complicated structure under their carapace called the gastric mill that grinds their food in a variety of different ways. 螃蟹在甲壳下有复杂的结构 称为胃磨机 以各种不同方式在磨它们的食物
carapace:n.壳;甲壳; gastric:adj.胃的;胃部的; mill:n.磨坊;工厂;磨粉机;面粉厂;v.磨成粉; grinds:v.磨碎; n.令人疲劳(或厌倦)的工作; (grind的第三人称单数和复数) variety:n.多样;种类;杂耍;变化,多样化;
And here's an endoscopic movie of this structure. 这里是用内镜拍的电影
endoscopic:adj.内窥镜的;用内窥镜检查的;
The amazing thing about this is that it's controlled by a really tiny set of neurons, about two dozen neurons that can produce a vast variety of different motor patterns, 令人惊异的是它受控于 由约有 20 多个神经元很小的神经元集 可产生多种不同的运动模式
and the reason it can do this is that this little tiny ganglion in the crab is actually inundated by many, many neuromodulators. 它可以这样做的原因是,这个小小的神经节 实际上螃蟹密布着许多的神经调质
ganglion:n.[组织]神经节;[医]腱鞘囊肿; inundated:adj.洪泛的;v.淹没(inundate的过去分词);
You heard about neuromodulators earlier. 你早前听说过神经调质
There are more neuromodulators that alter, that innervate this structure than actually neurons in the structure, and they're able to generate a complicated set of patterns. 有更多的神经调质 实际上比神经元在这个结构上分布得更多 它们能够生成一组复杂的模式
innervate:vt.使受神经支配;使神经分布于;刺激活动;
And this is the work by Eve Marder and her many colleagues who've been studying this fascinating system that show how a smaller cluster of neurons can do many, many, many things because of neuromodulation that can take place on a moment-by-moment basis. 这是Eve Marder和她的许多同事的工作成果 他们一直在研究这个有趣的系统 这展示了神经元小群集怎样 可以做很多、 很多、 很多的事情 因为神经调节能时刻进行
Eve:n.前夕;夜晚; colleagues:n.同事;同行(colleague的复数); cluster:n.群;簇;丛;串;vi.群聚;丛生;vt.使聚集;聚集在某人的周围; neuromodulation:[生理]神经调节;神经调制; take place:发生;举行;
So this is basically multiplexing in time. 所以这基本上复用的时间
Imagine a network of neurons with one neuromodulator. 想象一个神经元与一个神经调质构成的网络
You select one set of cells to perform one sort of behavior, another neuromodulator, another set of cells, a different pattern, and you can imagine you could extrapolate to a very, very complicated system. 你选择一组细胞来执行一种行为 另一个神经调质,另一组细胞 不同的模式,你可以想象 你可以推出一个非常、 非常复杂的系统
extrapolate:vt.外推;推断;vi.外推;进行推断;
Is there any evidence that flies do this? 是否有任何证据表明苍蝇这样做吗？
evidence:n.证据,证明;迹象;明显;v.证明;
Well, for many years in my laboratory and other laboratories around the world, we've been studying fly behaviors in little flight simulators . 在我的实验室和其他世界各地的实验室 我们就一直在小飞行模拟器中研究苍蝇的行为
laboratory:n.实验室,研究室; laboratories:n.实验室;(laboratory的复数) simulators:n.模拟器;假装者,模拟者;
You can tether a fly to a little stick. 你可以把苍蝇系在一个小棒上
tether:n.范围;系链;拴绳;vt.用绳或链拴住;
You can measure the aerodynamic forces it's creating. 你可以测量它产生的空气动力
You can let the fly play a little video game by letting it fly around in a visual display . 你可以让玩苍蝇玩一个小视频游戏 让它在显示器周围飞
video game:n.电子游戏; display:n.显示;炫耀;vt.显示;表现;陈列;vi.[动]作炫耀行为;adj.展览的;陈列用的;
So let me show you a little tiny sequence of this. 我让你们看看一个小片段
Here's a fly and a large infrared view of the fly in the flight simulator , and this is a game the flies love to play. 这是一只苍蝇 和一个苍蝇飞行模拟器的大型红外图像 这是苍蝇喜欢玩的游戏
flight simulator:n.飞行模拟器;飞行练习器;
You allow them to steer towards the little stripe , and they'll just steer towards that stripe forever. 让它们导向到这个小条纹 它们会永远引向该带区
steer:v.引导;控制;操纵;驾驶(船、汽车等);n.建议;劝告;忠告;阉公牛; stripe:n.条纹;线条;杠;种类;v.使…成条纹状;
It's part of their visual guidance system. 这是它的视觉导航系统的一部分
But very, very recently , it's been possible to modify these sorts of behavioral arenas for physiologies . 但非常,非常的最近 有可能为生理学而改变这种行为研究场所
recently:adv.最近;新近; modify:vt.修改,修饰;更改;vi.修改; arenas:n.竞技场(arena的复数形式);角斗场; physiologies:n.生理学;生理机能;
So this is the preparation that one of my former post-docs, 这些准备,是由我之前一个博士后
Gaby Maimon, who's now at Rockefeller, developed, and it's basically a flight simulator but under conditions where you actually can stick an electrode in the brain of the fly and record from a genetically identified neuron in the fly's brain. 叫Gaby Maimon开放的,他现在在洛克菲勒 这基本上是一种飞行模拟器 但你可以把电极插在 苍蝇的脑内 通过苍蝇大脑中用基因标示过的神经元做记录
electrode:n.[电]电极;电焊条; genetically:adv.从遗传学角度;从基因方面; identified:v.确认;认出;找到;发现;说明身份;(identify的过去式和过去分词)
And this is what one of these experiments looks like. 这是这些实验的样子
It was a sequence taken from another post-doc in the lab, 它是从一个博士后实验室中拍摄的
Bettina Schnell . 叫Bettina Schenell
Schnell:adv.(德语)快速地;迅速地;
The green trace at the bottom is the membrane potential of a neuron in the fly's brain, and you'll see the fly start to fly, and the fly is actually controlling the rotation of that visual pattern itself by its own wing motion , and you can see this visual interneuron respond to the pattern of wing motion as the fly flies. 在底部的绿色踪迹是膜电位 来自苍蝇脑内的神经元 你将看到苍蝇开始飞翔,它其实是 自己控制着这种视觉模式的旋转 由其自身翼的运动 你可以看到这个视觉神经 在苍蝇飞行中对翼的运动做出的反应
trace:追溯,追踪 membrane:n.膜;薄膜;羊皮纸; potential:n.潜能;可能性;[电]电势;adj.潜在的;可能的;势的; motion:n.动作;移动;手势;请求;意向;议案;v.运动;打手势; respond:vi.回答;作出反应;承担责任;n.应答;唱和;
So for the first time we've actually been able to record from neurons in the fly's brain while the fly is performing sophisticated behaviors such as flight. 我们实际上第一次能够记录 通过苍蝇的脑内神经元 而且这个苍蝇还在执行复杂的行为,如飞行。
performing:adj.表演的;演奏的;v.做;执行;演出;运转(perform的现在分词)
And one of the lessons we've been learning is that the physiology of cells that we've been studying for many years in quiescent flies is not the same as the physiology of those cells when the flies actually engage in active behaviors like flying and walking and so forth. 我们一直在学习的经验教训之一 就是我们一直在研究的细胞的生理学 多年来在静止的苍蝇上 与这些细胞生理学并不相同的是 这是在当苍蝇处于运动状态下 比较飞行中和行走中等等。
physiology:n.生理学;生理机能; quiescent:adj.静止的;不活动的;沉寂的;
And why is the physiology different? 为什么生理学上不同呢？
Well it turns out it's these neuromodulators, just like the neuromodulators in that little tiny ganglion in the crabs. 事实是这些神经调质 就像这小螃蟹的神经节调质
So here's a picture of the octopamine system. 这里是章鱼胺系统的图片
Octopamine is a neuromodulator that seems to play an important role in flight and other behaviors. 章鱼胺上,神经调质 似乎在飞行和其他行为具有重要的作用
But this is just one of many neuromodulators that's in the fly's brain. 但这只是许多调质 这是在苍蝇的大脑中
So I really think that, as we learn more, it's going to turn out that the whole fly brain is just like a large version of this stomatogastric ganglion, and that's one of the reasons why it can do so much with so few neurons. 所以我真的认为,当我们了解的更多 结果将是,整个苍蝇的大脑 就像这胃肠神经节的大版本 这就是为什么它可以做这么多事情却只有这么少的神经元的原因之一
Now, another idea, another way of multiplexing is multiplexing in space, having different parts of a neuron do different things at the same time . 现在,另一个想法,另一种方式的多路复用 是空间多路复用 用神经元的不同部分 在同一时间做不同的事情
at the same time:同时;另一方面;与此同时;
So here's two sort of canonical neurons from a vertebrate and an invertebrate , a human pyramidal neuron from Ramon y Cajal, and another cell to the right, a non-spiking interneuron, 所以这里是典型的神经元的两个类型 从脊椎动物和无脊椎动物, Ramon Y Cajal（拉孟伊卡哈）的一个人类锥体神经元 和另一个右侧的细胞,非尖状的中间神经元
canonical:adj.依教规的;权威的;牧师的;n.牧师礼服; invertebrate:adj.无脊椎的;无骨气的;n.无脊椎动物;无骨气的人; pyramidal:adj.锥体的;金字塔形的;角锥状的;n.三角骨;
and this is the work of Alan Watson and Malcolm Burrows many years ago, and Malcolm Burrows came up with a pretty interesting idea based on the fact that this neuron from a locust does not fire action potentials . 这是很多年前,Alan Waston和Malcolm Burrows的工作成果 Malcolm Burrows想出了一个很有趣的想法 基于一个事实,就是蝗虫的神经元 不会触发动作电位
Burrows:n.地洞,洞穴v.挖掘;穴居;潜伏(burrow的第三人称单数和复数) locust:n.[植保]蝗虫,[昆]蚱蜢; potentials:n.[电]电位;潜能(potential的复数);
It's a non-spiking cell. 它是一个非尖状的细胞
So a k">< b> col or="Blac k">< b> typical cell, like the neurons in our brain, has a region called the k">< b> col or="Blac k">< b> dendrites that receives k">< b> col or="Blac k">< b> input , and that input sums together and will produce action potentials that run down the axon and then activate all the k">< b> col or="Blac k">< b> output k">< b> col or="Blac k">< b> regions of the neuron. 所以一个典型的细胞,像我们的大脑中的神经元 具有称为树突的区域来接收输入 并把输入累加在一起 并将产生动作电位 跑到轴突下,然后激活 所有输出区域的神经元
But non-spiking neurons are actually quite complicated because they can have input synapses and output synapses all interdigitated, and there's no single action potential that drives all the outputs at the same time. 但是非尖状神经元其实相当复杂 因为它们有神经输突触入和输出突触 都是整合好的,没有单一的动作电位 在同一时间驱动所有输出
synapses:n.(神经元的)突触(synapse的复数;synapsis的复数) outputs:n.[计]输出; v.生产;
So there's a possibility that you have computational compartments that allow the different parts of the neuron to do different things at the same time. 所以有可能有个计算单元 使得神经元的不同部分 在同一时间做不同的事情
computational:adj.计算的; compartments:n.隔间;分隔间,隔层;(compartment的复数)
So these basic concepts of multitasking in time and multitasking in space, 这些是多任务处理的基本概念 在时间和空间,在多任务处理
multitasking:n.多重任务处理;多重任务执行;
I think these are things that are true in our brains as well, but I think the insects are the true masters of this. 我认为这些是在我们的大脑里面是一样的 但我认为昆虫是真正掌握要领的
So I hope you think of insects a little bit differently next time, and as I say up here, please think before you swat. 因此,我希望下次你会觉得昆虫有点不同 而正如我在这里所说,请在拍死它们之前再三想想
(Applause) (掌声)