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ErezLiebermanAiden_2011X-_我们从五百万本书里学到了什么_
Erez Lieberman Aiden: Everyone knows that a picture is worth a thousand words . Erez Liberman Aiden:人说 一副画面抵过一千个词
a picture is worth a thousand words:一幅画胜过千言万语(百闻不如一见);
But we at Harvard were wondering if this was really true. 但是我们在哈佛大学 却在思考这是不是一定正确
Harvard:n.哈佛大学;哈佛大学学生;
(Laughter) （众人笑）
So we assembled a team of experts, spanning Harvard, MIT, "The American Heritage Dictionary," "The Encyclopedia Britannica" 我们召集了各方专家 他们来自哈佛 麻省理工 《英国大百科全书》 《美国传统英语字典》
assembled:v.聚集;集合;收集;装配;组装;(assemble的过去分词和过去式) spanning:v.持续;贯穿;包括(广大地区);涵盖(多项内容);(span的现在分词) Heritage:n.遗产;传统;继承物;继承权; Encyclopedia:n.百科全书(亦是encyclopaedia);
and even our proud sponsors the Google . 还有我们骄傲的赞助商 谷歌
sponsors:n.赞助商;主办单位(sponsor的复数);v.赞助(sponsor的三单形式);主办;倡议; Google:谷歌;谷歌搜索引擎;
And we cogitated about this for about four years. 我们大概 思考了四年
And we came to a startling conclusion . 最后得出一个惊人的结论
startling:adj.惊人的;让人震惊的;极鲜亮的;v.使惊吓;使吓一跳;(startle的现在分词) conclusion:n.结论;结局;推论;
Ladies and gentlemen, a picture is not worth a thousand words. 女士们先生们 一副画面可不止一千个词那么简单
In fact, we found some pictures that are worth 500 billion words. 事实上 我们发现有时候 一幅画面抵过5千亿个词
Jean-Baptiste Michel: So how did we get to this conclusion? Jean-Baptiste Michel:我们是如何得出这个结论的呢
So Erez and I were thinking about ways to get a big picture of human culture and human history, change over time. 是这样的 Erez和我 在想怎样找到一幅展现人类文明 和人文历史的画面: 历史的变迁
So many books actually have been written over the years. 人们在漫长岁月中写了很多书
So we were thinking, well the best way to learn from them is to read all of these millions of books. 所以我们想 向他们学习的最佳方法 就是把那几百万本书全都读完
Now of course, if there's a scale for how awesome that is, that has to rank extremely , extremely high. 当然 如果用坐标来表示这样做的好处 那Y轴上的值一定是极高的
scale:n.规模;比例;鳞;刻度;天平;数值范围;v.衡量;攀登;剥落;生水垢; awesome:adj.令人敬畏的;使人畏惧的;可怕的;极好的; extremely:adv.非常,极其;极端地;
Now the problem is there's an X-axis for that, which is the practical axis. 但问题是还有X轴 也就是可行性
X-axis:n.X轴;横坐标轴; practical:adj.实际的;真实的;客观存在的;n.实习课;实践课;
This is very, very low. 这是极低的
(Applause) （众人鼓掌）
Now people tend to use an alternative approach , which is to take a few sources and read them very carefully. 现在人们倾向于另一种做法 那就是选择几本书进行精读
alternative:adj.供选择的;选择性的;交替的;n.二中择一;供替代的选择; approach:n.方法;路径;v.接近;建议;着手处理; sources:n.来源;出处;起源;根源;原因;v.(从…)获得(source的第三人称单数和复数)
This is extremely practical, but not so awesome. 可行性极高但还不够好
What you really want to do is to get to the awesome yet practical part of this space. 人们真正想要的 是一个既好又可行的方法
So it turns out there was a company across the river called Google who had started a digitization project a few years back that might just enable this approach. 结果 在水一方 有一家叫“谷歌”的公司 他们在此之前的几年前就开始了一个数字化工程 有可能帮我们找到这个“既好又可行”的方法
digitization:n.[计]数字化,数位化,数码化; enable:v.使能够;使有机会;使成为可能;使可行;
They have digitized millions of books. 他们已经将几百万本书进行了数字化
digitized:adj.数字化的;v.使数字化(digitize的过去分词);
So what that means is, one could use computational methods to read all of the books in a click of a button. 这就意味着人们在电脑上点几个键 就能阅读所有的书
computational:adj.计算的;
That's very practical and extremely awesome. 这真的是既可行又好
ELA: Let me tell you a little bit about where books come from. 这些书是哪里来的呢
Since time immemorial , there have been authors. 从古时候开始 人们就开始写作了
immemorial:adj.远古的,古老的;无法追忆的;
These authors have been striving to write books. 这些作家写书都非常卖力
striving:n.努力;奋斗;v.努力;奋斗;力争;力求;(strive的现在分词)
And this became considerably easier with the development of the printing press some centuries ago. 几个世纪前印刷机问世了 写书的过程变得简单多了
considerably:adv.相当地;非常地; printing press:n.印刷机;
Since then, the authors have won on 129 million distinct occasions, publishing books. 自那以后 作家们已经出版了 1.29亿本书
distinct:adj.明显的;独特的;清楚的;有区别的;
Now if those books are not lost to history, then they are somewhere in a library, and many of those books have been getting retrieved from the libraries and digitized by Google, which has scanned 15 million books to date. 如果这些书没有随年月而遗失 就都在图书馆里存着 谷歌已经把许多书从图书馆中调了出来 进行了数字化 被扫描的书籍到目前已有1500万册
retrieved:v.取回;找回;检索数据;扭转颓势;(retrieve的过去式和过去分词)
Now when Google digitizes a book, they put it into a really nice format. 谷歌扫描图书时 把书的格式做得很好
Now we've got the data, plus we have metadata . 现在我们不但有了数据 还有元数据
metadata:n.[计]元数据;
We have information about things like where was it published, who was the author, when was it published. 我们掌握了这些书的出版地 作者 出版时间等信息
And what we do is go through all of those records and exclude everything that's not the highest quality data. 接下来 我们就要从所有这些记录中 筛选出质量最高的数据
exclude:v.不包括;不放在考虑之列;防止…进入;阻止…参加;
What we're left with is a collection of five million books -- 500 billion words -- a string of characters a thousand times longer than the human genome -- a text which, when written out, would stretch from here to the Moon and back 10 times over -- a veritable shard of our cultural genome. 最后剩下的 是5亿本书 5000亿个词 这么多词连起来 长度是人类基因组的1000倍 如果把这些词连续写出来 其长度相当于在地月之间 往返10次以上 这还仅是我们文化基因组的小小一段
string:n.字符串; v.悬挂; adj.由弦乐器组成的; genome:n.基因组;染色体组; stretch:v.伸展;延伸;伸出;舒展;n.伸展;弹性;舒展;一片;adj.有弹力的; veritable:adj.真正的,名副其实的; shard:n.(甲虫的)[昆]鞘翅;陶瓷碎片; cultural:adj.与文化有关的;文化的;与艺术、文学、音乐等有关的;
Of course what we did when faced with such outrageous hyperbole -- 当然啦 面对如此令人崩溃的结果
outrageous:adj.粗暴的;可恶的;令人吃惊的; hyperbole:n.夸张的语句;夸张法;
(Laughter) （众人笑）
was what any self-respecting researchers would have done. 我们做了一个懂得自重的研究者 应该做的事
self-respecting:adj.有自尊心的;自重的;
We took a page out of XKCV, and we said, "Stand back. 我们借鉴了XKCD（科学漫画） 说: 往后站。
We're going to try science." 我们要用科学来解决问题。”
(Laughter) （众人笑）
JM: Now of course, we were thinking, well let's just first put the data out there for people to do science to it. 当然 这时我们在想 何不先把数据放上去 让人们通过科学来运用数据
Now we're thinking, what data can we release ? 现在我们在思考 哪些数据可以公开
release:v.释放;发射;让与;允许发表;n.释放;发布;让与;
Well of course, you want to take the books and release the full text of these five million books. 你当然想把这所有5百万本书 全文公开
Now Google, and Jon Orwant in particular , told us a little equation that we should learn. 现在谷歌 具体地说是乔恩. 奥温特 告诉教给我们一个有用的方程式
in particular:尤其,特别; equation:n.方程式,等式;相等;[化学]反应式;
So you have five million, that is five million authors, and five million plaintiffs is a massive lawsuit . 你有5百万本书 那就有五百万个作者 一个有5百万个原告的官司可不小啊
plaintiffs:n.原告;起诉人;(plaintiff的复数) massive:adj.大量的;巨大的,厚重的;魁伟的; lawsuit:n.诉讼;[法]官司;诉讼案件;
So, although that would be really, really awesome, again, that's extremely, extremely impractical . 所以尽管这是个好想法 但是也极不现实
impractical:adj.不切实际的,不现实的;不能实行的;
(Laughter) （众人笑）
Now again, we kind of caved in, and we did the very practical approach, which was a bit less awesome. 现在我们做出些许让步 采用一个非常可行但稍微没那么好的方法
We said, well instead of releasing the full text, we're going to release statistics about the books. 我们不公开全书内容 而是公开书本的相关统计数据
releasing:n.释放;松释动作;脱扣释放;v.释放;排放;(release的现在分词); statistics:n.统计数字;统计资料;统计学;(statistic的复数)
So take for instance "A gleam of happiness." 拿“A gleam of happiness”这个词组做例子
instance:n.实例;情况;建议;v.举...为例; gleam:v.发微光;闪烁;流露出;(在眼中)闪现;
It's four words; we call that a four-gram. 它有四个单词 我们称它为四字格
We're going to tell you how many times a particular four-gram appeared in books in 1801, 1802, 1803, all the way up to 2008. 我们会告诉你直到2008年出版的书中 在1801年 1802年 1803年一直到2008年 某个四字格一共出现了多少次
That gives us a time series of how frequently this particular sentence was used over time. 这让我们看到 这个词组在这段时期内被使用的频率
series:n.系列,连续;[电]串联;级数;丛书; frequently:adv.频繁地,经常地;时常,屡次;
We do that for all the words and phrases that appear in those books, and that gives us a big table of two billion lines that tell us about the way culture has been changing. 我们对在这些书中的所有单词和词组都这么处理 于是我们得出了一个由20亿曲线 表示出文化变化的情况
ELA: So those two billion lines, we call them two billion ngrams. 这20亿条曲线 我们成作20亿个n字格
What do they tell us? 它们告诉了我们什么
Well the individual ngrams measure cultural trends . 这些n字格衡量的是文化的走势
individual:n.个人;有个性的人;adj.单独的;个别的; trends:n.趋势;倾向;动态;动向;(trend的第三人称单数和复数)
Let me give you an example. 我来举个例子
Let's suppose that I am thriving , then tomorrow I want to tell you about how well I did. 假设 我正在发财 明天我告诉你我发财的情况
suppose:v.推断:假定:假设:设想: thriving:v.兴旺发达;繁荣;旺盛;茁壮成长;(thrive的现在分词)
And so I might say, "Yesterday, I throve." 我会说:“昨天,我发了。”
Alternatively , I could say, "Yesterday, I thrived ." 也可以说:“昨天,我发财了。”
Alternatively:adv.非此即彼;二者择一地;作为一种选择; thrived:v.兴盛,繁荣(thrive的过去式和过去分词形式);
Well which one should I use? 我到底应该用哪个说法呢
How to know? 怎么找答案
As of about six months ago, the state of the art in this field is that you would, for instance, go up to the following psychologist with fabulous hair, and you'd say, "Steve, you're an expert on the irregular verbs . 6个月以前 很流行的做法是 比如说 你去问这位秀发飘逸的心理学家 你说 “史蒂夫,你是不规则动词的专家。
state of the art:adj.最先进的;已经发展的;达到最高水准的; psychologist:n.心理学家,心理学者; fabulous:adj.难以置信的;传说的,寓言中的;极好的; irregular:n.不规则物;不合规格的产品;adj.不规则的;无规律的;非正规的;不合法的; verbs:n.[语]动词(verb的复数);
What should I do?" 我该怎么办啊？”
And he'd tell you, "Well most people say thrive, but some people say throve." 他会说:“大多数人说‘发财了’, 但有些人说‘发了’。”
And you also knew, more or less , that if you were to go back in time 200 years and ask the following statesman with equally fabulous hair -- 如果你可以 回到200年前 问问这位秀发同样飘逸的政治家
more or less:或多或少; statesman:n.政治家;国务活动家;
(Laughter) （众人笑）
'"Tom, what should I say?" “托马斯,我该怎么说？”
He'd say, "Well, in my day, most people throve, but some thrived." 他会回答:“嗯,在我的时代,大多数人说‘发了’, 但是少数人说‘发财了’。”
So now what I'm just going to show you is raw data. 现在我给你们看一个原始数据
Two rows from this table of two billion entries. 这是20亿本书中的其中两本书的曲线
What you're seeing is year by year frequency of thrived and throve over time. 你们将看到“发了”和“发财了”这两个词 随时间的推移被使用的频率
frequency:n.频率;发生率;重复率;频繁;
Now this is just two out of two billion rows. 这还只是 20亿条曲线中的其中两条
So the entire data set is a billion times more awesome than this slide. 整套数据 比这张幻灯片要宏伟10亿倍
(Laughter) （众人笑）
(Applause) （众人鼓掌）
JM: Now there are many other pictures that are worth 500 billion words. 很多画面都相当于5千亿个词
For instance, this one. 比如这一幅
If you just take influenza , you will see peaks at the time where you knew big flu epidemics were killing people around the globe. 如果你找“流行感冒”这一词 你会看到几个全球范围内 祸害人命的流感高峰
influenza:n.[内科]流行性感冒(简写flu);家畜流行性感冒; peaks:n.山顶;峰巅(peak的复数); epidemics:n.流行病;蔓延(epidemic的复数);时疫;
ELA: If you were not yet convinced , sea levels are rising, so is atmospheric CO2 and global temperature. 如果这不足以令人信服 海平面正在上升 大气中二氧化碳含量和全球气温都在升高
convinced:adj.坚信; v.使确信; (convince的过去分词和过去式) atmospheric:adj.大气的,大气层的; global:adj.全球的;总体的;球形的;
JM: You might also want to have a look at this particular ngram, and that's to tell Nietzche that God is not dead, although you might agree that he might need a better publicist . 你们也可以看看这个n字格 告诉尼采上帝没死 你可能也认为他或许要换一个企宣了
have a look at:看一看,看一眼; publicist:n.国际法学家;宣传人员;公法学家;
(Laughter) （众人笑）
ELA: You can get at some pretty abstract concepts with this sort of thing. 你可以通过这个得到非常抽象的概念
abstract:n.摘要; adj.抽象的; vt.摘要; vi.做摘要;
For instance, let me tell you the history of the year 1950. 我跟你们说说 1950年的历史
Pretty much for the vast majority of history, no one gave a damn about 1950. 在漫漫历史长河中 几乎没人在意1950年
majority:n.大部分:大多数:多数票:成年人: damn:v.谴责;该死;n.诅咒;adj.可恶的;
In 1700, in 1800, in 1900, no one cared. 1700年 1800年 1900年 没有人在意
Through the 30's and 40's, no one cared. 20世纪三十年代和四十年代 没有人在意
Suddenly, in the mid-40's, there started to be a buzz . 到了四十年代中期 突然间 关注度飞升
buzz:n.嗡嗡声; v.发出嗡嗡声;
People realized that 1950 was going to happen, and it could be big. 人们意识到1950年快来了 这一年可能非同小可啊
(Laughter) （众人笑）
But nothing got people interested in 1950 like the year 1950. 人们关注1950 就是因为1950这一年
(Laughter) （众人笑）
People were walking around obsessed . 人们都着了魔了
obsessed:v.使痴迷;使迷恋;使着迷;(obsess的过去式和过去分词)
They couldn't stop talking about all the things they did in 1950, all the things they were planning to do in 1950, all the dreams of what they wanted to accomplish in 1950. 无时无刻不在谈论 他们1950年做过的事情 他们打算在1950年做的事情 后者他们1950年想要实现的梦想
accomplish:v.完成;实现;达到;
In fact, 1950 was so fascinating that for years thereafter , people just kept talking about all the amazing things that happened, in '51, '52, '53. 事实上 1950年是不同凡响的一年 即使过了好多年 人们还是不停地谈论那年发生的所有美好事情 51年 52年 53年
fascinating:adj.极有吸引力的;迷人的;v.深深吸引;迷住;(fascinate的现在分词) thereafter:adv.其后;从那时以后;
Finally in 1954, someone woke up and realized that 1950 had gotten somewhat passe. 终于到了1954年 人们醒悟过来 1950年已成往事了
Finally:adv.终于;最终;(用于列举)最后;彻底地; somewhat:n.几分;某物;adv.有点;多少;几分;稍微;
(Laughter) （众人笑）
And just like that, the bubble burst . 就这样 泡泡破了
bubble:n.泡;气泡;肥皂泡;一点感情;v.起泡;冒泡;洋溢着(某种感情); burst:v.破裂;爆炸;突破;冲进;n.爆发;点射;释放;(情感的)迸发;
(Laughter) （众人笑）
And the story of 1950 is the story of every year that we have on record, with a little twist , because now we've got these nice charts.
twist:v.捻;扭转;曲折;扭动;n.捻;拧;扭动;搓;
And because we have these nice charts, we can measure things.
We can say, "Well how fast does the bubble burst?"
And it turns out that we can measure that very precisely.
Equations were derived , graphs were produced, and the net result is that we find that the bubble bursts fast and faster with each passing year.
Equations:n.方程式;等式;均等;均势(equation的复数形式); derived:adj.导出的;衍生的,派生的;v.得到;推断(derive的过去分词);由…而来; bursts:[天]爆发;破裂(burst的第三人称单数);
We are losing interest in the past more rapidly.
JM: Now a little piece of career advice.
career:n.职业;事业;生涯;经历;
So for those of you who seek to be famous, we can learn from the 25 most famous political figures, authors, actors and so on.
seek:v.寻求;寻找;谋求;
So if you want to become famous early on, you should be an actor, because then fame starts rising by the end of your 20's -- you're still young, it's really great.
Now if you can wait a little bit, you should be an author, because then you rise to very great heights -- like Mark Twain, for instance: extremely famous.
But if you want to reach the very top, you should delay gratification and, of course, become a politician .
gratification:n.满意;喜悦;使人满意之事; politician:n.政治家;(蔑)政客;(美)政治贩;
So here you will become famous by the end of your 50's, and become very, very famous afterward .
afterward:adv.以后,后来;
So scientists also tend to get famous when they're much older.
Like for instance, biologists and physics tend to be almost as famous as actors.
biologists:n.生物学家(biologist的复数);
One mistake you should not do is become a mathematician .
mathematician:n.数学家;善作数字计算的人;
(Laughter)
If you do that, you might think, "Oh great. I'm going to do my best work when I'm in my 20's."
But guess what, nobody will really care.
(Laughter)
ELA: There are more sobering notes.
sobering:adj.令人警醒的;使人冷静的;v.(使)变得持重,变得冷静;(sober的现在分词)
among the ngrams.
For instance, here's the trajectory of Marc Chagall, an artist born in 1887.
trajectory:n.[物]轨道,轨线;[航][军]弹道; Marc:n.机读目录;(水果,种子等经压榨后的)榨渣;
And this looks like the normal trajectory of a famous person.
He gets more, and more, and more famous -- except if you look in German.
If you look in German, you see something completely bizarre , something you pretty much never see, which is he becomes extremely famous and then all of a sudden plummets , going through a nadir between 1933 and 1945, before rebounding afterward.
bizarre:adj.奇异的(指态度,容貌,款式等); all of a sudden:突然地,出乎意料地; plummets:v.大幅下跌;垂直落下(plummet的三单形式);n.[测]铅锤(plummet的复数); nadir:n.最低点,最底点;[天]天底; rebounding:v.弹回;反弹;报应;回升;(rebound的现在分词)
And of course, what we're seeing is the fact Marc Chagall was a Jewish artist in Nazi Germany.
Jewish:adj.犹太人的;犹太族的;
Now these signals are actually so strong that we don't need to know that someone was censored .
censored:adj.设限,被检查过的;v.审查;删掉(censor的过去分词);
We can actually figure it out using really basic signal processing .
processing:v.加工;处理;审核;数据处理;v.列队行进;缓缓前进;(process的现在分词)
Here's a simple way to do it.
Well, a reasonable expectation is that somebody's fame in a given period of time should be roughly the average of their fame before and their fame after.
reasonable:adj.合理的,公道的;通情达理的; expectation:n.预料;预期;期待;希望;指望; roughly:adv.粗糙地;概略地;
So that's sort of what we expect.
And we compare that to the fame that we observe .
compare:v.比较;对比;n.比较; observe:v.观察;看到;庆祝;监视;
And we just divide one by the other to produce something we call a suppression index .
suppression:n.抑制;镇压;[植]压抑; index:n.指标;指数;索引;指针;v.做索引;指出;编入索引中;
If the suppression index is very, very small, then you very well might be being suppressed .
suppressed:adj.抑制的,发育不全的;v.镇压,禁止;(suppress的过去时和过去分词)
If it's very large, maybe you're benefiting from propaganda .
propaganda:n.宣传;传道总会;
JM: Now you can actually look at the distribution of suppression indexes over whole populations.
distribution:n.分布;分配;分发;分销; indexes:n.指数; v.表明(index的第三人称单数);
So for instance, here: this suppression index is for 5,000 people picked in English books where there's no known suppression, it would be like this -- basically take this center on one.
basically:adv.主要地,基本上;
What you expect is basically what you observe.
This is distribution as seen in Germany.
Very different, it's shifted to the left.
shifted:转移;移动(shift的过去式和过去分词);
People talked about it twice less as it should have been.
But much more importantly, the distribution is much wider.
There are many people who end up on the far left on this distribution who are talked about 10 times fewer than they should have been.
But then also many people on the far right who seem to benefit from propaganda.
This picture is the hallmark of censorship in the book record.
hallmark:n.特点;品质证明;vt.给…盖上品质证明印记;使具有…标志; censorship:n.审查制度;审查机构;
ELA: So culturomics is what we call this method.
It's kind of like genomics .
genomics:n.基因组学;基因体学;
Except genomics is a lens on biology through the window of the sequence of bases in the human genome.
lens:n.透镜,镜头;晶状体;隐形眼镜;汽车的灯玻璃;v.给…摄影; biology:n.(一个地区全部的)生物;生物学; sequence:n.顺序; v.按顺序排列;
Culturomics is similar.
It's the application of massive scale data collection analysis to the study of human culture.
application:n.应用;申请;应用程序;敷用; analysis:n.分析;分解;验定;
Here, instead of through the lens of a genome, through the lens of digitized pieces of the historical record.
historical:adj.历史的;史学的;基于史实的;
The great thing about culturomics is that everyone can do it.
Why can everyone do it?
Everyone can do it because three guys,
Jon Orwant, Matt Gray and Will Brockman over at Google, saw the prototype of the Ngram Viewer, and they said, "This is so fun.
prototype:n.原型;雏形;最初形态;
We have to make this available for people."
So in two weeks flat -- the two weeks before our paper came out -- they coded up a version of the Ngram Viewer for the general public .
coded:adj.[计]编码的;电码的;译成电码的;v.译成密码(code的过去式和过去分词); general public:n.普通百姓;大众;公众;
And so you too can type in any word or phrase that you're interested in and see its ngram immediately -- also browse examples of all the various books in which your ngram appears.
browse:v.浏览;吃草;n.浏览;吃草;
JM: Now this was used over a million times on the first day, and this is really the best of all the queries .
queries:n.问题; v.[计]查询(query的第三人称单数形式);
So people want to be their best, put their best foot forward.
But it turns out in the 18th century, people didn't really care about that at all.
They didn't want to be their best, they wanted to be their beft.
So what happened is -- of course, this is just a mistake.
It's not that strove for mediocrity , it's just that the S used to be written differently, kind of like an F.
strove:v.strive的过去式; mediocrity:n.平庸之才;平常;
Now of course, Google didn't pick this up at the time.
So we reported this in the science article that we wrote.
But it turns out this is just a reminder that, although this is a lot of fun, when you interpret these graphs, you have to be very careful, and you have to adopt the base standards in the sciences.
interpret:v.诠释;说明;口译;把…理解为; adopt:v.采取;接受;收养;正式通过; standards:n.标准,水平,规格(standard的复数)
ELA: People have been using this for all kinds of fun purposes.
(Laughter)
Actually, we're not going to have to talk, we're just going to show you all the slides and remain silent.
This person was interested in the history of frustration .
frustration:n.挫折;
There's various types of frustration.
If you stub your toe , that's a one A "argh."
stub:n.存根;烟蒂;树桩;断株;v.踩熄;连根拔除; toe:n.脚趾;鞋头;v.用脚趾踩;用脚尖踢;
If the Planet Earth is annihilated by the Vogons to make room for an interstellar bypass , that's an eight A "aaaaaaaargh."
annihilated:adj.废止的;v.废止(annihilate的过去分词); make room for:让出地方给…,为…腾出空位; interstellar:adj.[航][天]星际的; bypass:vt.绕开;忽视;设旁路;迂回;n.旁路;[公路]支路;
This person studies all the "arghs"
from one through eight A's.
And it turns out that the less-frequent "arghs"
are, of course, the ones that correspond to things that are more frustrating -- except, oddly , in the early 80's.
correspond:vi.符合,一致;相应;通信; frustrating:adj.令人沮丧的;v.使沮丧;(frustrate的现在分词) oddly:adv.古怪地;奇妙地;单数地;
We think that might have something to do with Reagan.
have something to do with:有点关系;与...有关系;
(Laughter)
JM: There are many usages of this data, but the bottom line is that the historical record is being digitized.
usages:n.用法(usage的复数形式);惯例; the bottom line:底线;本质内容;最底线;
Google has started to digitize 15 million books.
That's 12 percent of all the books that have ever been published.
It's a sizable chunk of human culture.
sizable:adj.相当大的;大小相当的; chunk:n.大块;矮胖的人或物;
There's much more in culture: there's manuscripts , there newspapers, there's things that are not text, like art and paintings.
manuscripts:n.[图情]手稿;草稿(manuscript的复数形式);
These all happen to be on our computers, on computers across the world.
And when that happens, that will transform the way we have to understand our past, our present and human culture.
transform:v.使改变;使改观;使转换;n.[数]变换式;[化]反式;
Thank you very much. 非常感谢大家
(Applause) （众人鼓掌）