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AllanJones_2011G-_大脑的地图_
Humans have long held a fascination for the human brain. 人类长时间的着迷于 人类的大脑。
fascination:n.魅力;魔力;入迷;
We chart it, we've described it, we've drawn it, we've mapped it. 我们讨论它,描述它。 我们已经画出了它。 我们已经把它地图化了。
described:v.描述;形容;把…称为;做…运动;(describe的过去分词和过去式)
Now just like the physical maps of our world that have been highly influenced by technology -- think Google Maps, think GPS -- the same thing is happening for brain mapping through transformation . 现在,我们现实中的地图 被科技高度影响着—— 比如谷歌地图, 比如全球定位系统, 和它一样,我们的大脑地图也在 经历变革。
physical:adj.[物]物理的;身体的;物质的;符合自然法则的;n.体格检查; highly:adv.高度地;非常;非常赞许地; influenced:v.影响;对…起作用;支配;左右;(influence的过去分词和过去式) technology:n.技术;工艺;术语; Google:谷歌;谷歌搜索引擎; transformation:n.转变;(用于南非)民主改革;
So let's take a look at the brain. 让我们来看一看大脑。
take a look at:看一看;检查;
Most people, when they first look at a fresh human brain, they say, "It doesn't look what you're typically looking at when someone shows you a brain." 大多数人,当他们第一次看到新鲜的人脑时, 他们会说,“他看起来和典型的 别人展现给我们的大脑不一样。”
typically:adv.代表性地;作为特色地;
Typically, what you're looking at is a fixed brain. It's gray. 典型的,你以前看到的大脑是一个固定了的大脑。它是灰白色的。
And this outer layer , this is the vasculature , which is incredible , around a human brain. 这是大脑的外层,这是脉管系统。 它不可思议的围绕着人类的大脑。
outer:adj.外面的,外部的;远离中心的;n.环外命中; layer:n.层,层次; vt.把…分层堆放; vi.形成或分成层次; vasculature:n.脉管系统; incredible:adj.难以置信的,惊人的;
This is the blood vessels . 这是血管。
vessels:n.血管(vessel的复数);船舶;容器;
20 percent of the oxygen coming from your lungs, 20 percent of the blood pumped from your heart, is servicing this one organ . 含有20% 由肺部供应的氧气。 你的心脏产生的20%的血液 都用来供应大脑这一个器官。
pumped:adj.紧张的; v.用泵输送; (pump的过去分词和过去式) organ:n.[生物]器官;机构;风琴;管风琴;嗓音;
That's basically , if you hold two fists together, it's just slightly larger than the two fists. 如果你握住你的两个拳头,它基本上 只比你的两个拳头大一点。
basically:adv.主要地,基本上; slightly:adv.些微地,轻微地;纤细地;
Scientists, sort of at the end of the 20th century, learned that they could track blood flow to map non-invasively where activity was going on in the human brain. 科学家们在大约20世纪晚期的时候 发现他们可以通过非侵入式的方法 来追踪血液的流动 从而绘制出在人类大脑里活动进行的区域的地图。
track:n.小道;足迹;车辙;轨道;v.追踪;跟踪; non-invasively:重复性,无创性;
So for example, they can see in the back part of the brain, which is just turning around there. 举个例子,他们可以看到大脑后面的那一部分, 就是刚刚转过来的这里。
There's the cerebellum; that's keeping you upright right now. 这里是小脑,它使你现在能保持正确的直立。
upright:n.立柱;adj.直立的;挺直的;竖直的;垂直的;adv.竖立着;垂直着;
It's keeping me standing. It's involved in coordinated movement. 它使得我能站在这里。它是一个相互协调的活动中的一部分。
involved:adj.有关的; v.涉及; (involve的过去式和过去分词) coordinated:v.使协调;使相配合;搭配,协调;(coordinate的过去分词和过去式)
On the side here, this is temporal cortex . 在侧面这里的是颞叶皮层。
temporal:adj.暂时的;当时的;现世的;n.世间万物;暂存的事物; cortex:n.[解剖]皮质;树皮;果皮;
This is the area where primary auditory processing -- so you're hearing my words, you're sending it up into higher language processing centers. 我们听到的东西在这里被初级加工, 所以你现在可以听见我说的话 你正在把刚才听到的话传送到更高级的语言处理中心。
auditory:n.听众;礼堂;adj.听觉的;耳朵的; processing:v.加工;处理;审核;数据处理;v.列队行进;缓缓前进;(process的现在分词)
Towards the front of the brain is the place in which all of the more complex thought, decision making -- it's the last to mature in late adulthood . 在大脑的前方这里 是产生所有复杂的思想,作出决定的地方, 它是最后成熟的地方,在我们到了成年期后期的时候。
complex:adj.复杂的;合成的;n.复合体;综合设施; mature:v.成熟; adj.明白事理的; adulthood:n.成年;成人期;
This is where all your decision-making processes are going on. 这是你所有决策过程正在进行的的地方。
decision-making:n.决策; processes:n.过程; v.处理(process的第三人称单数形式);
It's the place where you're deciding right now you probably aren't going to order the steak for dinner. 这是你正在进行决定的地方, 你或许不会点一份牛排作为晚餐。
So if you take a deeper look at the brain, one of the things, if you look at it in cross-section , what you can see is that you can't really see a whole lot of structure there. 所以如果你更深入的看看大脑, 其中一部分,如果你看它的横截面, 你能发现的是 你不能真正的看到整个的,大部分的大脑结构。
cross-section:n.横截面;横断面; structure:n.结构;构造;建筑物;vt.组织;构成;建造;
But there's actually a lot of structure there. 但是大脑里确实有很多结构。
It's cells and it's wires all wired together. 它的细胞和它的电线全部都连接在一起。
So about a hundred years ago, some scientists invented a stain that would stain cells. 所以在几百年前, 一些科学家发明了一种染色剂可以将细胞染色。
stain:v.沾污;败坏;给…着色;n.污点;瑕疵;着色剂;
And that's show here in the the very light blue. 这里淡蓝色显示的就是。
very light:n.(船上发出的)求援信号弹;
You can see areas where normal cell bodies are being stained . 你可以看到这些地方 正常的细胞体被染色了。
stained:adj.玷污的;着色的v.玷污;败坏;给…染色(stain的过去式和过去分词);
And what you can see is it's very non-uniform . You see a lot more structure there. 你可以看到它是非常不均一的,你可以看到有很多的结构。
non-uniform:n.不均匀,非均一;
So the outer part of that brain is the neocortex . 在大脑外层部分 是新(大脑)皮层。
neocortex:n.新(大脑)皮质;
It's one continuous processing unit, if you will. 如果你愿意的话,它是一个可以连续处理的部件。
continuous:adj.连续的,持续的;继续的;连绵不断的;
But you can also see things underneath there as well. 但是你可以看到在那之下的东西也是。
underneath:prep.在…的下面;在…的支配下;n.下面;底部;adj.下面的;底层的;
And all of these blank areas are the areas in which the wires are running through. 所有的这些空白区域 是所有脑中线路穿过的地方。
They're probably less cell dense . 这些地方的细胞密度或许会低一些。
dense:adj.稠密的;浓厚的;愚钝的;
So there's about 86 billion neurons in our brain. 我们的大脑中大约有860亿神经元。
And as you can see , they're very non-uniformly distributed . 正如你所见,他们的分布很不均一。
as you can see:正如你所看到的;你是知道的; distributed:adj.分布的;分散的;v.分发;分配;使分布(distribute的过去分词和过去式)
And how they're distributed really contributes to their underlying function. 而它们的分布正好构成了 它们潜在的功能。
contributes:[图情]投稿;[经]捐助;[经]捐献(contribute的第三人称单数); underlying:adj.根本的; v.构成…的基础; (underlie的现在分词)
And of course, as I mentioned before, since we can now start to map brain function, we can start to tie these into the individual cells. 当然,正如我之前所提到, 我们现在可以开始绘制大脑功能地图了。 我们可以开始将这些功能嵌入每一个独立的细胞。
individual:n.个人;有个性的人;adj.单独的;个别的;
So let's take a deeper look. 让我们来更深入的观察一下。
Let's look at neurons. 看那些神经元。
So as I mentioned, there are 86 billion neurons. 正如我刚才提到的,这里有860亿神经元。
There are also these smaller cells as you'll see. 还有一些你现在看到的小细胞。
These are support cells -- astrocytes glia. 它们是支持细胞——星形胶质细胞神经胶质。
And the nerves themselves are the ones who are receiving input . 而且神经本身 是接收输入信息的。
nerves:n.神经;神经紧张;勇气;v.鼓足勇气;振作精神;(nerve的第三人称单数和复数) input:n.投入; v.把(数据等)输入计算机;
They're storing it, they're processing it. 它们存储信息,它们加工信息。
Each neuron is connected via synapses to up to 10,000 other neurons in your brain. 每一个神经元是由突触 与你大脑中其他1,0000个神经元相连接的。
neuron:n.[解剖]神经元,神经单位; via:prep.通过;经由;n.道路;[医]管道; synapses:n.(神经元的)突触(synapse的复数;synapsis的复数)
And each neuron itself is largely unique . 而且每个神经元本身 大部分是独特的。
largely:adv.主要地;大部分;大量地; unique:adj.独特的,稀罕的;[数]唯一的;n.独一无二的人或物;
The unique character of both individual neurons and neurons within a collection of the brain are driven by fundamental properties of their underlying biochemistry . 独立的神经元和大脑里一系列的神经元 的独特特性 是由它们潜在的基本化学生物性能 所驱使的。
fundamental:n.基础; adj.十分重大的; biochemistry:n.生物化学;生物化学过程;
These are proteins . 就是蛋白质。
proteins:n.[生化]蛋白质(protein复数);
They're proteins that are controlling things like ion channel movement. 它们是蛋白质控制着像离子移动通道这样的事情。
They're controlling who nervous system cells partner up with. 它们控制着神经系统的细胞与谁结伴。
nervous system:n.神经系统;
And they're controlling basically everything that the nervous system has to do. 而且它们还控制着 基本上每一件神经系统必须要做的事。
So if we zoom in to an even deeper level, all of those proteins are encoded by our genomes . 所以当我们更加深入的去观察 所有的这些蛋白质 都被我们的基因组编码了。
encoded:adj.[计]编码的;v.把…编码(encode的过去分词); genomes:n.[遗]基因组(genome复数);
We each have 23 pairs of chromosomes . 我们每个人都有23对染色体。
chromosomes:n.[遗][细胞][染料]染色体(chromosome的复数形式);
We get one from mom, one from dad. 我们从母亲那继承一半,从父亲那继承一半。
And on these chromosomes are roughly 25,000 genes . 而且在这些染色体上 大约有2,5000个基因。
roughly:adv.粗糙地;概略地; genes:n.基因;(gene的复数)
They're encoded in the DNA. 它们在DNA中被译成编码。
And the nature of a given cell driving its underlying biochemistry is dictated by which of these 25,000 genes are turned on and at what level they're turned on. 一个特定细胞的天性 操纵着它潜在的生物化学性能 这个天性由这2,,5000 启动的基因 和他们启动的级别所指示。
dictated:adj.口述的(dictate的过去分词);v.口述(dictate的过去分词);
And so our project is seeking to look at this readout , understanding which of these 25,000 genes is turned on. 所以我们的项目 是寻找这个读出器, 并理解这2,5000个基因中哪些被启动了。
seeking:v.寻找;寻求;谋求;争取;(向人)请求(seek的现在分词) readout:n.读出;读出器;
So in order to undertake such a project, we obviously need brains. 所以为了进行这样的一个项目, 我们明显的需要大脑。
undertake:v.承担;从事;负责;承诺;
So we sent our lab technician out. 所以我们派实验室技术员外出。
technician:n.技术员;技师;(艺术、体育等的)技巧精湛者;
We were seeking normal human brains. 我们寻找正常的人类大脑。
What we actually start with is a medical examiner's office. 我们真正开始的地方是 一个验尸员的办公室。
This a place where the dead are brought in. 那是个死人被带去的地方。
We are seeking normal human brains. 我们寻找的是正常的人类大脑。
There's a lot of criteria by which we're selecting these brains. 我们根据许多参考数据来选的大脑
criteria:n.标准,条件(criterion的复数);
We want to make sure that we have normal humans between the ages of 20 to 60, they died a somewhat natural death with no injury to the brain, no history of psychiatric disease , no drugs on board -- we do a toxicology workup . 我们希望确保 我们得到的大脑是20到60岁正常人的大脑, 他们是自然死亡的 大脑没有受到损伤, 他们不能有精神病史, 我们会做毒性检查确保他们 没有滥用药物的历史。
somewhat:n.几分;某物;adv.有点;多少;几分;稍微; injury:n.伤害,损害;受伤处; psychiatric:adj.精神病学的;精神病治疗的; disease:n.病,[医]疾病;弊病;vt.传染;使…有病; toxicology:n.[毒物]毒物学,[毒物]毒理学; workup:n.病情的检查;(印刷物)表面的污迹;引起;
And we're very careful about the brains that we do take. 我们对我们取得的大脑 非常小心。
We're also selecting for brains in which we can get the tissue , we can get consent to take the tissue within 24 hours of time of death. 我们也选取那些 我们可以得到薄纱一样的大脑。 我们可以的得到同意去提取 24小时内死亡的人的大脑的一层薄纱。
tissue:n.纸巾,手巾纸;(人、动植物细胞的)组织; consent:vi.同意;赞成;答应;n.同意;(意见等的)一致;赞成;
Because what we're trying to measure, the RNA -- which is the readout from our genes -- is very labile , and so we have to move very quickly. 因为我们试图要去测量的东西——RNA核糖核酸 就是我们基因的读取器 是非常易变的。 所以我们必须要快速行动。
labile:adj.易变的,不稳定的;不安定的;n.[心理]心境不定;
One side note on the collection of brains: because of the way that we collect, and because we require consent, we actually have a lot more male brains than female brains. 在收集大脑上有一点要提示: 因为我们收集的方式, 并且需要许可 所以我们事实上得到的男性大脑比女性大脑多。
female:adj.女性的;雌性的;柔弱的,柔和的;n.女人;[动]雌性动物;
Males are much more likely to die an accidental death in the prime of their life. 男性更有可能在他们生命的青壮年时期意外死亡。
accidental:n.偶然;[乐]临时符;adj.不测的;非本质的; prime:adj.主要的; v.极好地; n.初期; v.使准备好;
And men are much more likely to have their significant other , spouse , give consent than the other way around. 男性的重要的人,他的配偶 更加容易给我们许可。 相比之下,反过来,女性的配偶很少给我们许可。
significant other:n.有特殊关系的那一位(如配偶、情人、恋人); spouse:n.配偶;vt.和…结婚;
(Laughter) 笑声
So the first thing that we do at the site of collection is we collect what's called an MR. 我们在采集地点做的第一件事 是收集我们所说的核磁共振——MR。
site:n.地点;位置;场所;v.设置;为…选址;
This is magnetic resonance imaging -- MRI. 这是核磁共振成像-MRI。
magnetic:adj.像磁铁的;有磁性的;磁的;富有吸引力的; resonance:n.[力]共振;共鸣;反响; imaging:n.[物]成像;造像;v.反映;想像;作…的像;象征;(image的现在分词形式)
It's a standard template by which we're going to hang the rest of this data. 它是一个标准的模版,通过它我们可以留住剩下的数据。
standard:n.标准;水准;旗;度量衡标准;adj.标准的;合规格的;公认为优秀的; template:n.模板,样板;
So we collect this MR. 所以我们收集这个MR
And you can think of this as our satellite view for our map. 你可以把这个当做是我们的地图的卫星图。
The next thing we do is we collect what's called a diffuse intenser imaging. 接下来我们要做的事 是收集叫做弥散张量成像的东西。
diffuse:adj.弥漫的;散开的;v.扩散;传播;漫射;
This maps the large cabling in the brain. 这张地图是大量电缆在大脑中连接。
cabling:n.布线; v.用锚链系住;
And again, you can think of this as almost mapping our interstate highways, if you will. 再次重申,如果你愿意你可以把这想象成 和制作我们的洲际间高速公路地图一样。
interstate:adj.州际的;州与州之间的;n.(美)州际公路;
The brain is removed from the skull , and then it's sliced into one-centimeter slices . 这个大脑是从头盖骨上分离的 然后把它切成一厘米的薄片。
skull:n.头盖骨,脑壳; sliced:adj.(食物)已切成薄片的;v.切成薄片;分配(slice的过去式和过去分词); slices:n.切片,切割(slice的复数形式);v.切成薄片(slice的三单形式);
And those are frozen solid, and they're shipped to Seattle . 那些是冷冻的固体, 然后他们被装船运到西雅图。
Seattle:n.西雅图(美国一港市);
And in Seattle, we take these -- this is a whole human hemisphere -- and we put them into what's basically a glorified meat slicer . 在西雅图,我们拿这个 这是一个完整的人脑的半球体 我们把它放进一个基本是改造过的肉类切片机。
hemisphere:n.半球; glorified:adj.吹捧的;美化的;v.吹捧;美化;颂扬;(glorify的过去式和过去分词) slicer:n.切片机;截剪器;限制器;
There's a blade here that's going to cut across a section of the tissue and transfer it to a microscope slide. 这有一个刀片可以切 大脑薄纱的一部分 并转换成一个显微镜载片。
blade:n.叶片;刀片,刀锋;剑; transfer:n.转移;调任;调离;[体]转会球员;v.调任;调走;转学;转移; microscope:n.显微镜;
We're going to then apply one of those stains to it, and we scan it. 我们将会对它进行着色 并扫描它。
apply:v.申请;涂,敷;应用;适用;请求; stains:n.污点(stain的复数)[试剂][生物]染色剂;v.着色(stain的三单形式);沾染;
And then what we get is our first mapping. 然后我们就得到了第一副地图。
So this is where experts come in and they make basic anatomic assignments . 专家就是从这里入手 并制作基本的解剖作业。
anatomic:adj.组织的;解剖学上的;结构上的; assignments:n.作业;分配;(assignment的复数形式)
You could consider this state boundaries , if you will, those pretty broad outlines . 如果你愿意你可以思考州的边界, 那些漂亮宽阔的轮廓。
boundaries:n.边界;分界线;(boundary的复数) outlines:n.轮廓; v.概括(outline的三单形式);
From this, we're able to then fragment that brain into further pieces, which then we can put on a smaller cryostat . 从这开始我们可以更进一步把大脑切成碎片 使它可以放在一个更小的低温恒温器上。
fragment:n.片段;破片;弹片;小块;v.分割;使成碎片; cryostat:n.低温恒温器;
And this is just showing this here -- this frozen tissue, and it's being cut. 就是这里展示的这个 这个动过的薄纱,它正在被切割。
This is 20 microns thin, so this is about a baby hair's width . 这是20微米的厚度,大约和婴儿的头发一样粗。
microns:n.微米(micron的复数); width:n.宽度;广度;某一宽度的材料;(游泳池两长边之间的)池宽;
And remember, it's frozen. 记住,它是冷冻的
And so you can see here, old-fashioned technology of the paintbrush being applied . 所以你可以看到 古老的笔刷技术正在被应用。
old-fashioned:adj.老式的;过时的;守旧的; paintbrush:n.画笔;漆刷; applied:adj.应用的;实用的;v.应用;使用;申请,请求;(apply的过去分词和过去式)
We take a microscope slide. 我们拿一个显微镜载片。
Then we very carefully melt onto the slide. 然后我们非常小心的让它融化在载片上。
melt:v.融化;(使)软化;
This will then go onto a robot that's going to apply one of those stains to it. 然后它会被送到一个机器人那 在那它会被涂上那些染色剂中的一种。
And our anatomists are going to go in and take a deeper look at this. 我们的解剖学家们这时候会进入并且更深入的了解它们。
anatomists:n.解剖学家;剖析者;
So again this is what they can see under the microscope. 这是他们在显微镜下看到的景象。
You can see collections and configurations of large and small cells in clusters and various places. 你可以看到大的和小的细胞 聚集和结构 聚集和结构
configurations:n.配置(configuration的复数);立体基阵; clusters:n.[植]簇;丛(cluster的复数形式);[计]群集;
And from there it's routine. They understand where to make these assignments. 这事一个程序,他们知道那里去完成这些作业。
And they can make basically what's a reference atlas . 而且他们可以制作基本上所涉及到的地图集。
reference:n.参考,提及;参考书目;证明书;v.引用; atlas:n.地图集;寰椎;
This is a more detailed map. 这是一个更详细的地图。
Our scientists then use this to go back to another piece of that tissue and do what's called laser scanning microdissection. 我们的科学家用这个 返回到另一片大脑薄纱上 并且做激光扫描纤维解剖。
So the technician takes the instructions. 所以技术人员得到指令。
They scribe along a place there. 他们沿着那的一个地方划线。
And then the laser actually cuts. 然后激光做确实的切割。
You can see that blue dot there cutting. And that tissue falls off. 你可以看到正在切割的蓝点,然后那篇薄纱脱落。
You can see on the microscope slide here, that's what's happening in real time . 你可以看到在显微镜载片这里, 现在正在立即发生的事。
real time:adj.实时的;接到指示立即执行的;
There's a container underneath that's collecting that tissue. 这有一个容器在下面收集这些薄纱。
We take that tissue, we purify the RNA out of it using some basic technology, and then we put a florescent tag on it. 我们用一些基本的技术, 从这些薄纱里 净化出RNA 然后我们放一个荧光标签在上面。
purify:v.使(某物)洁净;净化(心灵);提纯;精炼; florescent:adj.花盛开的,开花的; tag:n.标记;标签;标志;标牌;v.给…加上标签;把…称作;给…起诨名;
We take that tagged material and we put it on something called a microarray. 我们拿标记过的材料 然后我们把它放在一些叫做微阵列芯片的东西上。
tagged:adj.标记的;示踪的;加标记的;v.附以签条(tag的过去分词);
Now this may look like a bunch of dots to you, but each one of these individual dots is actually a unique piece of the human genome that we spotted down on glass. 现在你可能认为你看到的是一群圆点, 但是事实上每一个独立的小点 都是一片我们点在玻璃上的 独特的人类基因组
a bunch of:一群;一束;一堆; spotted:adj.有花点的;有斑点的;v.看见;看出;发现;让步;(spot的过去分词和过去式)
This has roughly 60,000 elements on it, so we repeatedly measure various genes of the 25,000 genes in the genome. 它大约含有6,0000个元素在上面, 所以我们反复的测量基因组25000个基因中 各种各样的基因。
elements:n.要素;基本部分;少量;一群;(element的复数) repeatedly:adv.反复地;再三地;屡次地;
And when we take a sample and we hybridize it to it, we get a unique fingerprint , if you will, quantitatively of what genes are turned on in that sample. 当我们得到一个样本而且我们让它与它 我们得到一个独特的指纹, 如果你愿意那个例子里的大量的基因都会开启。
hybridize:vt.使杂交;混合生成;vi.杂交;混合; fingerprint:n.指纹;手印;vt.采指纹; quantitatively:adv.数量上;分量上;
Now we do this over and over again . 现在我们一遍一遍的做这件事,
over and over again:adv.一再地;反复不断地;
This process for any given brain. 对任何得到的大脑。
We're taking over a thousand samples for each brain. 我们从一个大脑上可以得到一千个样本。
This area shown here is an area called the hippocampus . 这里显示的这个区域是海马。
hippocampus:n.[解剖][脊椎]海马;马头鱼尾怪兽(神话中的一个形象);
It's involved in learning and memory. 它牵扯到学习和记忆。
And it contributes to about 70 samples of those thousand samples. 他可以贡献1000个样本中的 大约70个样本。
So each sample gets us about 50,000 data points with repeat measurements , a thousand samples. 每个样本给我们5,0000个数据点 使用重复测量得到一千个样本。
measurements:n.测量值,尺寸(measurement的复数);
So roughly, we have 50 million data points for a given human brain. 所以大约我们有 5千万数据点 从一个贡献的到脑中得到。
We've done right now two human brains-worth of data. 我们现在完成了 两个人类大脑值得的数据。
We've put all of that together into one thing, and I'll show you what that synthesis looks like. 我们把所有的这些放在一起 在一个东西里, 我将向你展示这个综合提看起来是什么样子的。
synthesis:n.综合,[化学]合成;综合体;
It's basically a large data set of information that's all freely available to any scientist around the world. 它基本上是一个大的信息数据集 世界上任何的科学家都可以免费得到里面的数据。
They don't even have to log in to come use this tool, mine this data, find interesting things out with this. 他们甚至都不用登陆来使用这个工具, 开采这些数据,从其中找出更多有缺的东西。
So here's the modalities that we put together . 所以这是我们把这些放在一起的形式。
modalities:n.形式;形态(modality的复数);样式; put together:..放在一起;组合;装配;
You'll start to recognize these things from what we've collected before. 你从我们之前收集的数据开始了解这些事情。
recognize:v.认识;认出;辨别出;承认;意识到;
Here's the MR. It provides the framework. 这是磁共振。它提供一个框架。
There's an operator side on the right that allows you to turn, it allows you to zoom in, it allows you to highlight individual structures . 这里左边有一个操纵杆可以让你扳动。 它可以帮你放大, 他可以帮你标记独立的结构。
operator:n.算子;接线员;操作人员;骗子; highlight:vt.突出;强调;使显著;加亮;n.最精彩的部分;最重要的事情;加亮区; structures:n.结构; v.建造(structure的第三人称单数形式);
But most importantly, we're now mapping into this anatomic framework, which is a common framework for people to understand where genes are turned on. 最重要的是 我们现在正在绘制地图的这个解剖学上的框架, 是我们通常所理解的基因启动的地方。
So the red levels are where a gene is turned on to a great degree. 所以红色的级别 是基因开启到一个良好的级别。
Green is the sort of cool areas where it's not turned on. 绿色的是稍稍有些冷的地方,它没有被启动。
And each gene gives us a fingerprint. 每一个基因都给我们一个指纹。
And remember that we've assayed all the 25,000 genes in the genome and have all of that data available. 记住我们已经化验了所有2,5000个基因组中的基因 并且用所有的可用数据。
So what can scientists learn about this data? 所以我们的科学家从这些数据中学到了什么呢？
We're just starting to look at this data ourselves. 我们自己仅仅开始看这些数据
There's some basic things that you would want to understand. 有一些基本的你想了解的东西
Two great examples are drugs, 药品中有两个很好的例子,
Prozac and Wellbutrin. 百忧解和安非他酮。
Prozac:n.百忧解(一种治疗精神抑郁的药物);
These are commonly prescribed antidepressants . 他们都是通常规定的抗忧郁类药物。
prescribed:v.给…开(药); (prescribe的过去式和过去分词) antidepressants:n.[药]抗抑郁药(antidepressant的复数形式);抗忧郁剂;
Now remember, we're assaying genes. 现在记住,我们正在化验基因。
assaying:n.[分化]试金;分析矿物;v.分析;试验;对…估价(assay的ing形式);
Genes send the instructions to make proteins. 基因发送指令制作蛋白质。
Proteins are targets for drugs. 蛋白质是药物的目标。
So drugs bind to proteins and either turn them off, etc. 所以药物和蛋白质是捆绑在一起的 把它们其中的一个去掉,等等
bind:v.结合;装订;有约束力;过紧;n.捆绑;困境;讨厌的事情;植物的藤蔓;
So if you want understand the action of drugs, you want to understand how they're acting in the ways you want them to, and also in the ways you don't want them to. 如果你想去理解药物的行动, 你想要理解它们有没有按照你想要它们行动的方式 和不想让它们行动的方式运行。
In the side-effect profile , etc., you want to see where those genes are turned on. 在副作用方面等 你想明白哪里那些基因可以打开。
side-effect:n.副作用;附带后果; profile:n.轮廓;简介;形象;外形;v.扼要介绍;概述;写简介;
And for the first time, we can actually do that. 第一次我们可以确确实实做到。
We can do that in multiple individuals that we've assayed too. 我们可以做到成倍的个体我们也可以化验。
multiple:adj.数量多的;多种多样的;n.倍数; individuals:n.[经]个人;[生物]个体(individual的复数);
So now we can look throughout the brain. 所以现在我们可以看透大脑。
throughout:adv.自始至终,到处;全部;prep.贯穿,遍及;
We can see this unique fingerprint. 我们可以看到这独特的指纹。
And we get confirmation. 我们得到确认
We get confirmation that, indeed, the gene is turned on -- for something like Prozac, in serotonergic structures, things that are already know be affected. 我们确实确认基因 可以为一些类似百忧解的东西打开 这些东西含血清素的结构,这些东西已经知道是可以起作用的
serotonergic:adj.[生化]产生血清素的;
but we also get to see the whole thing. 但是我们还没有看到整个事情的全部。
We also get to see areas that no one has ever looked at before, and we see these genes turned on there. 我们还有机会看了一些以前从来没有人看到过的区域, 我们看到这些基因在那些地方启动。
It's as interesting a side-effect as it could be. 这是一个非常非常有趣的副作用。
One other thing you can do with such a thing is you can, because it's a pattern matching exercise. 另一个你可以这样做的原因是 因为它是一个符合联系的模型,
Because there's unique fingerprint, 因为有独特的指纹,
We can actually scan through the entire genome and find other proteins that show a similar fingerprint. 我们可以确确实实的扫描整个基因组 并发现其他的蛋白质 显示同样的指纹。
So if you're in drug discovery, for example, you can go through an entire listing of what the genome has on offer to find perhaps better drug targets and optimize . 举个例子,如果你是在研究药物, 你可以浏览 整个已经提供的基因组列表 来发现更好的药物目标并优化。
optimize:vt.使最优化,使完善;vi.优化;持乐观态度;
Most of you are probably familiar with genome-wide association studies in the form of people hovering in the news saying, "Scientists have recently discovered the gene or genes which affect X." 你们大部分人可能对基因组协会的研究 非常熟悉 以人们通常在新闻中看到的形式: 科学家们最近发现了影响X染色体的基因 的基因。
familiar:adj.熟悉的;常见的;亲近的;n.常客;密友; association:n.协会;关联;联想;交往; hovering:v.翱翔;盘旋;踌躇;靠近(某事物);处于不稳定状态(hover的现在分词) recently:adv.最近;新近;
And so these kinds of studies are routinely published by scientists 这一类的研究 被科学家们例行公事的颁布
routinely:adv.例行公事地;老一套地;
And they're great. They analyze large populations. 他们很棒。他们分析了大量的人口。
analyze:v.对…进行分析,分解(等于analyse);
They look at their entire genomes, and they try to find hot spots of activity that are linked causally to genes. 他们着眼于他们整个的基因组, 他们试图找出活跃的 有原因的与基因有关的热点。
causally:adv.有原因地;
But what you get out of such an exercise is simple a list of genes. 但是你从这些试验中得到的 只是简单的基因列表。
It tells you the what, but it doesn't tell you the where. 它可以告诉你是什么但是没法让你知道在哪。
And so it's very important for those researchers that we've created this resource . 所以对那些研究员来说我们发现的这些资源 是非常重要的。
resource:n.资源;资料;才智;财力;v.向…提供资金(或设备);
Now they can come in and they can start to get clues about activity. 现在他们可以来我们这 并得到开始活动的线索。
clues:n.(调查,研究等的)线索;迹象;(故事的)关键情节;(clue的复数)
They can start to look at common pathways -- other ways that they simply haven't been able to do before. 他们可以开始考虑通常的途径—— 其他的以前他们没有办法做到的途径。
pathways:n.小路;小径(pathway的复数);
So I think this audience in particular can understand the importance of individuality . 所以我想这些特别的观众 可以理解个性的重要性。
in particular:尤其,特别; individuality:n.个性;个人;个人特征;个人的嗜好(通常复数);
And I think every human, we all have different genetic backgrounds, we all have lived separate lives. 我认为每一个人, 我们都有不同的遗传的背景, 我们都有分开的生活。
genetic:adj.基因的;遗传学的;
But the fact is our genomes are greater than 99 percent similar. 但是事实是 我们的基因组有超过99%的都是一样的。
We're similar at the genetic level. 我们在遗传的级别上是一样的。
And what we're finding is actually, even at the brain biochemical level, we are quite similar. 我们发现的事实是 甚至在大脑的生物化学级别上 我们都是非常相似的。
biochemical:adj.生物化学的;
And so this shows it's not 99 percent, but it's roughly 90 percent correspondence at a reasonable cut-off , so everything in the cloud is roughly correlated . 所以这显示它不是99% 但是它大约90%一致 在一个合理的捷径 所以在云中的每一件事是大概相关的。
correspondence:n.通信;一致;相当; reasonable:adj.合理的,公道的;通情达理的; cut-off:n.截止;定点;界限;adj.毛边短裤的; correlated:v.相互关联影响;相互依赖;(correlate的过去式和过去分词)
And then we find some outliers , some things that lie beyond the cloud. 然后我们发现了一些异常值, 一些隐藏在云雾后的事情。
outliers:n.[分化]异常值;离群值;离开本体的东西;局外人(outlier的复数);
And those genes are interesting, but they're very subtle . 那些基因是非常有趣的, 但是他们是很微妙的。
subtle:adj.微妙的;精细的;敏感的;狡猾的;稀薄的;
So I think it's an important message to take home today that even though we celebrate all of our differences, we are quite similar even at the brain level. 所以我想它是一个很重要的信息 今天你们可以带回家的 是尽管我们庆幸我们所有的不同, 我们还是非常相像的 甚至在大脑层面。
Now what do those differences look like? 这些不同看起来像什么呢？
This is an example of a study that we did to follow up and see what exactly those differences were. 这是一个研究的例子 我们跟踪并研究这些不同到底是什么
And they're quite subtle. 而且它们是非常精妙的。
These are things where genes are turned on in individual cell types. 我们发现的是基因以独立的细胞类型打开。
These are two genes that we found as good examples. 我们发现了两个基因作为很好的例子。
One is called RELN, it's involved in early developmental cues . 一个叫做RELN——它被包含在一个早期的发展线索中。
developmental:adj.发展的;启发的; cues:n.开端,线索;提示,关键;球杆;诱因(cue的复数形式);
DISC1 is a gene that's deleted in schizophrenia . DISC1是一个 在精神分裂症中被删除的基因。
schizophrenia:n.[内科]精神分裂症;
These aren't schizophrenic individuals, but they do show some population variation . 这些不是导致精神分裂症的个体, 但是他们确实显示了一些人类的变化。
schizophrenic:adj.精神分裂症的;n.精神分裂症的患者; variation:n.变异;变体;变奏;变种;
And so what you're looking at here in donor one and donor four, which are the exceptions to the other two, that genes are being turned on in a very specific subset of cells. 所以我们在寻找的是 在捐献者一和捐献者四中, 这两个捐献者的大脑与其他两个不同, 基因在细胞的不同子集中 被打开。
donor:n.捐赠者;供者;赠送人;adj.捐献的;经人工授精出生的; specific:adj.特殊的,特定的;明确的;详细的;[药]具有特效的;n.特性;细节;特效药; subset:n.[数]子集;子设备;小团体;
It's this dark purple precipitate within the cell that's telling us a gene is turned on there. 是在细胞中这个深紫色的沉淀 告诉我们哪里有一个基因被打开了。
purple:n.紫色;紫袍;v.变紫;使成紫色;adj.紫色的;华丽的文辞; precipitate:n.[化学]沉淀物; vt.使沉淀; vi.[化学]沉淀; adj.突如其来的;
Whether or not that's due to an individual's genetic background or their experiences, we don't know. 不论那是归因于 一个独立的基因背景或者它的经历。 我们不知道。
Whether or not:是否…;
Those kinds of studies require much larger populations. 这种研究需要更大量的人的大脑。
So I'm going to leave you with a final note about the complexity of the brain and how much more we have to go. 所以我给你们一条最后的注释 有关于大脑的复杂性 和还有多少路我们需要走。
complexity:n.复杂性;难以理解的局势
I think these resources are incredibly valuable . 我想这些资源是无价之宝。
resources:n.[计][环境]资源; v.向…提供资金(resource的第三人称单数); incredibly:adv.难以置信地;非常地; valuable:adj.有价值的;贵重的;可估价的;n.贵重物品;
They give researchers a handle on where to go. 他们给研究员们 指出一条道路。
handle:n.[建]把手;柄;手感;口实;v.处理;操作;运用;买卖;触摸;
But we only looked at a handful of individuals at this point. 但是我们现在只是研究了少数的个体。
We're certainly going to be looking at more. 我们很确定我们要去研究更多的。
I'll just close by saying that the tools are there, and this is truly an unexplored , undiscovered continent . 在结束时我想说 工具在那里, 而且这是一个真正的未被勘察过,未被发现的领域。
unexplored:adj.[地质]未勘查过的; undiscovered:adj.未被发现的;未勘探的; continent:n.大陆,洲,陆地;adj.自制的,克制的;
This is the new frontier, if you will. 如果你愿意,这是一个新的前沿
And so for those who are undaunted , but humbled by the complexity of the brain, the future awaits . 对那些勇敢的 但是深感大脑的复杂性很重要的人 未来在等着你们。
undaunted:adj.勇敢的,无畏的; humbled:使...卑下;轻松打败(尤指强大的对手);贬低(humble的过去式和过去分词); awaits:v.等候;等待;期待;(await的第三人称单数)
Thanks. 谢谢。
(Applause) 掌声